Pa Hy es ee ee ecg | 1 WA 7) hy Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION . br) a BV HS S 1 SHINGTO PUBLICATION 4392 Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the Institution for the Year Ended June 30 1959 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1960 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, December 31, 1959. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, on behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended June 30, 1959. I have the honor to be, Respectfully, Lronarp CarMIcHaEL, Secretary. It CONTENTS Page HERS DRO LEOSICT A Ges sae ot tN ho Ree ayy ie Be Ree a v Generalistatement=—— 2-5-5. oe. 2 eee ee ee eee ee ee a 1 ier StAabisShMentea. so s—" a ok ee ee Ae ee ye 4 Pe CHOATE OF ARE RCIU Se a Depart ge = age re ee 2 ee ere ee eae 5 INDENT COS 9 eee ore a eG ee oe re Ge 5 \ WATE HOT Searcy ot) me a oe ee ae ee ey BE eee ae oe 6 Summary of the year’s activities of the Institution_____-_-------------- 7 Reports of branches of the Institution: United StatessNational Museum. 242 2 - eee ee a 11 IBUreaueoleAm ericanert him) 0 lays ne ee ee ee ee 55 ASiTOphysical ODSerVAlOL irs. osetia = 02 ee ee 96 National" Collection/of WinerAntes ony 5a a Pane ese Ssc kes 111 reer GalloryaGreArus es == se anes eA UO Es i ee 127 INationaleAiraMuseumens. 45 sissies ete se ooo cease eee ee 141 NationaluZ@oLopicalyParkelte Mh eas oe eel ee ooo 2a Se 150 Canal-Zone- Biological Ares 245 2s ¥b saws hen see clearly illustrated such great ideas as man’s use of natural re- sources and man’s gradual triumph in the long development of specific arts and sciences. The newly modernized exhibits of the Smithsonian cover diverse fields. For example, the displays of the anthropology, ethnology, and archeology of the New World before Columbus have been admirably rearranged. ‘The birds of the world are presented as important and beautiful in themselves and as significant elements in the economy of nature and in zoological science in general. =- === Portrait of a Lady, by Anders Zorn. To the U.S. Information Agency, Washington, D.C., for the American National Exhibition in Moscow, July 25 through September 25, 1959: June 5.1950 == 2-2 High Cliff, Coast of Maine, by Winslow Homer. To the Veterans’ Administration, Washington, D.C.: December 16, 1958__------ Schoolgirl, by Mlle. Marie Louise-Catherine Breslau (charcoal drawing). Nurse and Patient, by Jules Cayron (crayon drawing). “Ostend,” by Arsene Chabanian (watercolor). Before the Crucifix, by Louis Adolphe Dechenaud (crayon drawing). Homeless Victim of War, by Hubert-Denis Htcheverry (crayon drawing). “Saint Cloud, 4 Juin, 1906,” by Francois Pla- meng (watercolor). Wounded Soldier, by Henri Gervex (pastel). Peasant Girl, by P.-Franc Lamy (watercolor). Church Interior, by Maurice Lobre (charcoal drawing). “Primavera,” by Hdgard Henri Marie Maxence (red chalk drawing). “Les Poilus.” “Quand je pense que j’aspirais a la vie au grand air,” by Louis Abel Tru- chet (charcoal drawing). “Pour que la liberté continue d’éclairer le monde,” by Henri Zo (charcoal drawing). February 16, 1959 SECRETARY’S REPORT ety The First Sharps Rifle (Homer D. Jennings, St. Cloud, Florida), by Walter Beck (pastel). The Signal, After the Battle of Big Bethel (John Tregaskis), by Walter Beck (pastel). Fisher of the Fifth New York Volunteer In- fantry, Duryee Zouaves, by Walter Beck (pastel). Drummer Boy of the Fighting Fifth after Gaines Mills (Robert F. Daly, New York City), by Walter Beck (pastel). The Lone Tree, by Arthur W. Hall (etching). Fry Street and the Old Polish Church, by Morris Henry Hobbs (etching). Mackerel, by Sears Gallagher (etching). Swift Current Falls, by Hugene Glaman (etch- ing). Davy Jones’ Locker, by Margaret Ann Gaug (etching). Homeward Bound, by Sears Gallagher (etch- ing). The Port of Calvi, Corsica, by Philip H. Gid- dens (etching). Little Mexico, by Louis Oscar Griffith (etching). Top of Brooklyn Arch, by Allen Lewis (etch- ing). Port of the Passing Ship, by Allen Philbrick (etching). The Great Tapestry Hall, Hampton Court Palace, by Leon R. Pescheret (etching). Middle Temple Hall, London, by Leon R. Pes- cheret (etching). Avenue of Flags, by Leon R. Pescheret (etch- ing). Miao Feng T’a (near the Jade Fountain Pa- goda), by Hans Luthmann (etching). Village Street, Bedford, Massachusetts, by Chester Leich (etching). Tree, Manhattan, by Martin Lewis (etching). Salem’s Old Wharves, Massachusetts, by Philip Little (etching). Arch, Roman Forum, by Bertha E. Jaques (etching). Boat Shop, Venice, by Bertha HE. Jaques (etch- ing). Cheviot Sheep, Hampstead Heath, London, by Bertha EK. Jaques (etching). Sphinx, Thames, London, by Bertha BH. Jaques (etching). German Building, Chicago, by Bertha BH. Jaques (etching). Seiners, Chioggia, by Bertha E. Jaques (etch- ing). The Temple, by Bertha EH. Jaques (etching). Artichoke, by Bertha BE. Jaques (etching). 118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 To the Office of Vice President Nixon, Washington, D.C.: July 8d G58 ase te Fas er Niagara, by George Inness. (Returned April 7, 1959.) To The White House, Washington, D.C.: July 11, 1958_ July 21, 1958__ AUgust LON dO5Ssaa= eas December 17, 1958____-__- VANUsTyy 2a. OO se ae March 6, 1959 April 10, 1959 June 9, 1959__ June 25, 1959_ Fruit, March 18, Minnete and Minet (pastel). Portrait of J. J. Shannon, R.A., by Orlando Rouland. Southwesterly Gale, St. Ives, by Frederick Judd Waugh. (Recalled April 8, 1959, for the exhibition, “Turn-of-the-Century Paintings From the William T. Evans Collection.’ ) Lower Ausable Pond, by Homer Dodge Martin. (Returned October 27, 1958.) Male Wood Duck on Shallow Water, by Richard Meryman. The Island, by Edward Willis Redfield. Beach of Bass Rocks, Gloucester, Massachu- setts, by Frank Knox Morton Rehn. Herbert Hoover, by Edmund Charles Tarbell. Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way, by Emanuel Leutze. (Returned March 13, 1959.) Outskirts of the Woods, by David Cox. (Returned June 25, 1959.) Southwesterly Gale, St. Ives, by Frederick Judd Waugh. Sun and Storm, by Paul Dougherty. SMITHSONIAN LENDING COLLECTION Three oils, Little Paulus, Little Rosa, and Watching, by S. Sey- mour Thomas (1868-1956), gift of Mrs. Jean Haskell, were added December 2, 1958. Bronze, Sun Dance, by Pau] Wayland Bartlett, N.A. (1865-1925), gift of Mrs. Armistead Peter, Jr., was added December 2, 1958. Fourteen paintings by Alice Pike Barney, lent November 2, 1955, to the Bio-Sciences Information Exchange were returned January 23, 1959, during a period of redecoration and re-lent, with Child with 1959: The Visitor (pastel). Endymion. The Dimple. Little Girl (pastel). Hail Fellow, Well Met (pastel). Peggy (pastel). An Oriental ( pastel). Fantasy (pastel). Gladys (pastel). Hippolyte Thom (pastel). Laura in Hat (pastel). Natalie in Greens (pastel). Romance (pastel). The following paintings were lent for varying periods: To The White House, Washington, D.C.: December Wi, 19b8h=se=22 Ships at Anchor, Cherbourg No. 1, by Edwin Scott. To the Department of the Treasury, Washington, D.C.: March 3, 1959 Shapes of Fear, by Maynard Dixon. SECRETARY'S REPORT 119 THE HENRY WARD RANGER FUND The following paintings, purchased previously but not assigned, have been allocated to the institutions indicated : Title and artist Assignment 194. Circus Friends (watercolor), by A. University of South Carolina, Colum- Henry Nordhausen (1901-_ ). bia, S.C. 195. That Lonesome Road (water- San Joaquin Pioneer and Historical color), by Roy M. Mason Society, Stockton, Calif. (1886-_). 205. Benares on the Ganges, by Mau- Phillips Gallery, Washington, D.C. rice Sterne, N.A. (1877-1957). 206. Sea and Wharf at Provincetown, M. H. De Young Museum, San Francis- by Eric Isenburger, N.A. co, Calif. (1902- ). 209. Everyday Is Washday (water- Henry Art Gallery, University of Wash- color), by Frederic Whitaker, ington, Seattle, Wash. N.A. (1891- ). 210. Philadelphia (watercolor), by Art Institute of Zanesville, Zanesville, Hugh Gumpel (1926- ). Ohio. No. 25, Sleep, by Leon Kroll, N.A. (1884— ), purchased by the Council of the National Academy of Design December 4, 1922, was reassigned by the Academy to the Fitchburg Art Museum, Fitchburg, Mass., on February 20, 1959. According to a provision in the Ranger bequest, that paintings pur- chased by the Council of the National Academy of Design from the fund provided by the Henry Ward Ranger Bequest, and assigned to American art institutions, may be claimed during the 5-year period beginning 10 years after the death of the artist represented, the fol- lowing painting was recalled for action of the Smithsonian Art Com- mission at its meeting December 2, 1958 : No. 68, Mlle. Maria Safonoff, by Irving R. Wiles, N.A. (1861-1948), returned to the Mount Holyoke College, Mount Holyoke, Mass., where it was originally assigned in 1928. The following paintings, purchased by the Council of the National Academy of Design since the last report, have been assigned as follows: Title and artist Assignment 212. Boardwalk, by Carl Setterberg Columbus Museum of Arts & Crafts, (1897-—_ ). Columbus, Ga. 213. The Critic (Kermit Lansner), by (Assignment pending.) Aaron Shikler (1922-— ). 214. Yesterday and Before and Before, (Assignment pending. ) by Loring W. Coleman (1918- ). 215. Night Road, Sheffield, by Joseph Hollins College, Hollins, Va. Barber (1915-— ). 216. Autumn Landscape, by Robert Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y. Vickrey (1926-— ). 217. The Painter, Shelley Fink, by (Assignment pending.) David Levine (1926- ). 536608—60——_9 120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Title and artist Assignment 218. Practice, by Iver Rose (1899- ). HH. B. Crocker Art Gallery, Sacramento, Calif. 219. Shopping District, by Sol Wilson Mary Washington College, University (1896—_ ). of Virginia, Fredericksburg, Va. 220. At Foot of Mount Teton (water- Queens College Art Association, Flush- color), by Chen Chi, A.N.A. ing, N.Y. (1912-— ). 221. Port City, by John Guerin J. B. Speed Art Museum, Louisville, Ky. (1889-—_). 222. Harvest Time, Extremadura University of Massachusetts, Amherst, (watereolor), by Hileen Mona- Mass. ghan Whitaker, A.N.A. (1911- ). 293. Still Life (watercolor), by Avel Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minn. de Knight (1923- ). 224. Houses in Shade (watercolor), by Wesleyan University, Middletown, Edwin L. Dahlberg (1901-— ). Conn. 225. Men and Mist (watercolor), by University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. Irving Shapiro ( — ). SMITHSONIAN TRAVELING EXHIBITION SERVICE In addition to 71 exhibits held over from previous years as listed below, 29 new shows were introduced. The total of 100 were circulated to 240 museums, one having been prepared for the U.S. Information Service’s use abroad. 1954-1955: Japanese Woodcuts I; Design in Holland; and Carl Bodmer Paints the Indian Frontier. 1955-1956: Sargent Watercolors; Architectural Photography; Contemporary Finnish Architecture; European Glass Design; Two Finnish Craftsmen; Japan I by Werner Bischof; This is the American Earth; and Chinese Ivories from the Collection of Sir Victor Sassoon. 1956-1957: A Frenchman in America, Charles-Alexandre Lesueur; Paintings by Tessai; American Printmakers; George Bellows Prints and Drawings; Contem- porary German Prints; Japanese Fish Prints; Architectural Photography II; German Architecture Today; Landscape Architecture Today; American Crafts- men, 1957 ; Recent Work by Harry Bertoia ; Good Design in Switzerland ; German Art Books; A World of Children’s Books; Six Japanese Painters; Early American Woodcarving; Punch and Judy; Japan II by Werner Bischof; The World of Edward Weston; Young Germans Behind the Camera; and Swedish Rock Carvings. 1957-1958: American Primitive Paintings; Paintings by Jan Cox: Indian Paintings from Rajasthan; Mexican Work by Cock van Gent; Second Pacific Coast Biennial; The American City in the 19th Century; Recent American Prints; Early Prints and Drawings of California; Japanese Woodblock Prints; Theatrical Posters of the Gay Nineties; Birds by Emerson Tuttle; 100 Years of American Architecture; A Century of New England Architecture; Contemporary Portuguese Architecture; National Ceramic Exhibition, Sixth Miami Annual; Fulbright Designers; Nylon Rug Designs; Religious Banners; Twelve Scandi- navian Designers; Swedish Textiles Today; Art Books from Italy; Books for Young Scientists ; Burmese Embroideries ; The Way of Chinese Landscape Paint- ing; Japanese Dolls; Thai Painting; Paintings by Jamini Roy; The Anatomy of Nature; Photographs of Angkor Wat; Image of America; Pup, Cub and Kitten; SECRETARY’S REPORT 1a Photographs of Sarawak; Glimpses of Switzerland; Argentine Children as Illus- trators; Art in Opera I—Tosca; Art in Opera II—Carmen; As I See Myself; The Four Seasons; and Children’s Paintings from Morocco. The exhibition American Folk Art was prepared for the use of the U.S. Information Agency in the Brussels Universal and International Exhibition. UNITED STATES Paintings and Drawings Title Source Young British Painters________ Arts Club of Chicago; Gimpel Fils, London; artists. Dutch Master Drawings___-__~ Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam; Netherlands Em- bassy ; museums and private lenders. Institute of International Education; Senator 2g) ETNIES Voeeesesce J. William Fulbright; Lloyd Goodrich and Fulbright Painters II________- artista: German Artists of Today______ Dr. Kurt Martin; Kleemann Gallery; German Embassy. Northwest Painters of Today_- Seattle Art Museum; Dr. Richard Fuller; artists. Recent Work by Peter Takal__ Cleveland Museum of Art, Miss Leona BE. Prasse; artists and collectors. Transferences( 22 s22422% oh. Michael Chase, Zwemmer Gallery, London. Graphic Arts Advertising in 19th Century Prints and Photographs Division of the Library America. of Congress. The Engravings of Pieter Brue- Mr. and Mrs. Jake Zeitlin, Los Angeles, Calif. ghel the Elder. Three Danish Printmakers_____ Venice Biennale, 1958; Danish Embassy, Wash- ington, D.C.; artists. Great European Printmakers___ Munson-Williams-Proctor Institute, Utica, N.Y. Charles Fenderich—Lithogra- Prints and Photographs Division of the Library pher of American Statesmen. of Congress. Drawings from Latin Amer- Visual Arts Section, Pan American Union, ica. Washington, D.C.; artists; collectors. Contemporary Religious Prints Mr. and Mrs. W. Ross Sloniker; Cincinnati from the Sloniker Collec- Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio. tion. Religious Subjects in Modern Pennell Collection, Library of Congress. Graphic Arts. UNESCO Watercolor Repro- UNESCO, Paris, France. ductions. Design British Artists-Craftsmen______ British Artists-Craftsmen, Ltd.; artists. Contemporary Finnish Rugs_-_ Bigelow-Sanford Carpet Co., Inc.; “Ornamo,” the Finnish Crafts Guild; weavers. Contemporary French Tapes- Association des Peintres-Cortonniers de Tapi- tries. series, Paris; l’Association Francaise d’ Ac- tion Artistique; French Ambassador; artists. Contemporary Indian Crafts_.__ Bengal Home Industries Association, Calcutta, India. 122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Oriental Art Stone Rubbings from Angkor Cultural Center of Angkor; Weyhe Gallery. Wat. Folk Art Shaker Craftsmanship_________ Index of American Design, National Gallery of Art. Photography The Unguarded Moment, Pho- Peter Hunter, George Eastman House; Time tographs by Erich Salomon. and Life Building, New York; Library of Congress. Children’s Exhibitions Children’s Paintings from Yorkville Youth Council, Inc., N.Y.; Shankers Southeast Asia. Weekly. Drawings by European Chil- Dr. Joy B. Roy, collector. dren. Children’s Paintings from In- Shankers Weekly; Fine Arts Commission’s dia. People to People Program. A Child Looks at the Museum__ Junior School, Art Institute of Chicago. Swiss Children’s Paintings._._._-. Mrs. Dorothy Snow, Boston Museum of Fine Arts. INFORMATION SERVICE AND STAFF ACTIVITIES In addition to the many requests for information received by mail and telephone, inquiries made in person at the office numbered 2,016. In all, 199 works of art were submitted for examination and identi- fication. Special catalogs with introductions and biographical notes by the Director were published for the following three exhibitions: Profiles of the Time of James Monroe; Henry Ward Ranger Centennial Ex- hibition; and Turn-of-the-Century Paintings from the William T. Evans Collection. He also published a vignette, Francis Davis Millet, in the Cosmos Club Bulletin for May 1959. Special catalogs were published for the following traveling exhibi- tions: American Primitive Paintings; British Artist-Craftsmen; Dutch Master Drawings; Contemporary French Tapestries; Fulbright Painters; Recent Work by Peter Takal; and UNESCO Water Color Reproductions. Special acknowledgments for two of these were writ- ten by Mrs. Annemarie H. Pope and Mrs. Jo Ann Sukel Lewis. Mr. Beggs was one of the three jurors for the national newspaper cartoon contest on the subject of “Human Betterment,” Birmingham, Ala., on January 16, 1959, and he judged the regional exhibition of the National League of American Pen Women on April 27, 1959. On September 1, 1958, he participated in a symposium, “The Study of Art as the Study of Man,” at the American Psychological Association SECRETARY’S REPORT 123 meetings, and on May 10, 1959, in a television show, “The 25th Hour,” concerning the history of miniatures, showing examples from the Na- tional Collection of Fine Arts permanent collection. He served on the Committee on Liturgical Arts of the Rock Spring Congregational Church, Arlington, Va., contributing three talks on the fine arts in a series of 12. He spoke on “Henry Ward Ranger, Painter and Bene- factor,” at the Art League of Manatee County, Bradenton, Fla., Feb- ruary 24, 1959. He became a member of the Committee for the Preservation of American Art, New York City, which awarded three heroic sculptures by Karl Bitter (1867-1915) to the city of Indian- apolis in a national competition, and served for the third year on the Cultural Presentations Committee, Operations Coordinating Board, which advises the Department of State in the selection of artists for its oversea program. On June 1-3, 1959, Mr. Beggs attended meetings of the Interna- tional Institute for Conservation and the opening of the American Association of Museums meetings in Pittsburgh. Mrs. Pope gave a talk on May 8 at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville on the Traveling Exhibition Service program. She attended openings of the Dutch Master Drawings in Washington, New York, Cleveland, and Chicago, and the meetings of the American Association of Museums in Pittsburgh. Miss Acton represented the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service in a panel] discussion at the meetings of the Southeast Museums Conference at Winston-Salem, N.C., between October 15 and 18, 1958. The staff participated in the organization of three important special commemorative exhibitions in cooperation with other institutions. At the request of the James Monroe Memorial Foundation, a bicenten- nial exhibition was shown in the rotunda of the Natural History Building, a special brochure and catalog being published. An exhibi- tion requested on behalf of the Lincoln Sesquicentennial] Commis- sion was organized, with the assistance of the Lincoln Museum, and shown at the Washington Cathedral. It was also exhibited in New York at the Sheraton Park Hotel in connection with the Independ- ence Stamp Show. In cooperation with the National Academy of Design, a Henry Ward Ranger Centennial exhibition was shown in New York City during the fall, and circulated in part from January through June. Rowland Lyon served as juror for the following four shows: To- day’s Artists in Charles County (Maryland); Westmoreland Hills Art Fair; Miniature Painters, Sculptors and Gravers Society of Washington, D.C.; and the Arts Club Outdoor Art Fair. Twenty-seven paintings in oil on canvas from the permanent col- lections were cleaned and revarnished, 1 was relined, and 58 picture frames were repaired and refinished with the assistance of Buildings 124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Management Service. One painting, James W. Melville, by S. de Ivanowitz, was relined to repair a 16-inch tear in the canvas, for the U.S. National Museum. Three paintings, Italian Landscape, Sunset Glow, by Tom Jones; Lord Roth, by Sir Joshua Reynolds; and Fishing Boats Beating Up to Windward, by Edward Moran, were renovated by Henri G. Courtais, who also restored The Cottage Door, by Thomas Gainsborough. An oil, Major John Wesley Powell, by Edmund C. Messer, was renovated by Francis Sullivan. Janice Hines relined two oil paintings, Major John Wesley Powell, by Henry Ulke, and House in the Valley of Wyoming, by Boese, and renovated the following from the William T. Evans Collection: The Blacksmith, by James Caroll Beckwith; The Black Orchid, by Fred- erick Stuart Church; The Spouting Whale, by William Morris Hunt; Algerian Water Carrier, by William Sartain; Water Lilies, by Walter Shirlaw; The Boy with the Arrow, by Douglas Volk; Mrs. William T. Evans and Son John, by Henry Oliver Walker; and A Gentle- woman, by J. Alden Weir. Joseph Ternbach renovated the following 12 objects from the Gel- latly collection: Incense burner, enameled and chased copper, 15th century (234.1); Byzantine necklace of gold medallions with inlaid depictions of Christ and Apostles (247.1) ; Champleve limoges plaque, the Crucifixion, French, 13th century (250.1) ; copper chasse, French, 18th century (251.1); Champleve limoges crucifix, French, 13th cen- tury (252.1); Champleve crozier, the Annunciation, French, 13th century (254.1) ; Russian ikon, Our Lady of Vladimir, (488.1) ; Pyxis with enamel decoration, 13th century (602.1) ; silver filigreed phoenix, Chinese (271.1); silver filigreed crown, ornamented with gems and symbols, Chinese (272.1) ; silver and enamel peacock (621.1) ; Chinese glass bowl (580). Donald Hitchcock, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library, translated the Church Russian inscriptions on the silver-gilt ikon, Our Lady of Vladimir, in the Gellatly collection. The entrance to the Benjamin H. Warder home, received from the Cooperating Committee on Architecture in May 1923, was dismantled, crated, and stored at Suitland on May 15, 1959. An oul, John Tyler, by G. P. A. Healy, was copied by C. Gregory Stapko in a studio furnished to the National Collection of Fine Arts for that purpose through the courtesy of the National Gallery of Art. SPECIAL EXHIBITIONS Seventeen special exhibitions were held during the year: August 27 through September 26, 1958.—Third Biennial Exhibition of Creative Crafts sponsored by the Ceramic Guild of Bethesda, Cherry Tree Textile Design- SECRETARY’S REPORT 125 ers, Clay Pigeons Ceramic Workshop, Designer-Weavers, the Potomac Craftsmen, and the Kiln Club of Washington, consisting of 142 items. Craft demonstrations were given. A catalog was privately printed. October 12 through November 2, 1958.—Sculptures, Oils, Watercolors, and Drawings by Charles M. Russell, sponsored by the Montana State Society of Washington, D.C., consisting of 205 items. An illustrated catalog was privately printed. October 26 through November 23, 1958.—Profiles of the Time of James Monroe, under the auspices of the James Monroe Memorial Foundation, consisting of 178 objects including paintings, sculpture, silhouettes, and memorabilia, was held in the rotunda. A catalog was printed. December 3, 1958, through January 4, 1959.—The 21st Anniversary of the Metropolitan Art Exhibition, sponsored by the American Art League, consisting of 68 paintings and 12 seulptures, was held in the rotunda. December 8, 1958, through January 4, 1959—Henry Ward Ranger Centennial Exhibition consisting of 380 paintings from the National Collection of Fine Arts permanent collection that had been exhibited at the National Academy of Design, September 25 through October 12, 1958, in its commemoration of this artist’s birth, was held in the rotunda. A catalog was printed. Following the National Collection of Fine Arts showing, these 30 paintings were circulated from January through June 1959 to the following museums: Mint Museum of Art, Charlotte, N.C.; Art League of Manatee County, Braden- ton, Fla.; Jacksonville Art Museum, Jacksonville, Fla.; Gibbes Art Gallery, Charleston, 8.C.; and North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, N.C. January 10 through February 1, 1959.—British Artist-Craftsmen, sponsored by the Ambassador of Great Britain and Lady Caccia, and later cireulated by the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service, consisting of 178 objects, altar sculpture, stained glass, ceramics, glass, silver, ete. The Rose Book was lent by the Churchill family for special showing during this exhibition. A catalog was privately printed. February 7 through 27, 1959.—The 66th Annual Exhibition of the Society of Washington Artists, consisting of 66 paintings and 18 seulptures. A catalog was privately printed. February 28 through March 22, 1959.—Fulbright Painters and Designers, under the sponsorship of the Honorable J. W. Fulbright, Senator from Arkansas (circulated by the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service), consisting of 60 paintings and approximately 200 objects, including furniture, textiles, silver, ceramics, stained glass, ete. A catalog was privately printed. March 29 through April 26, 1959.—Contemporary Glass and Textiles by Lu- erecia Moyano de Muniz, sponsored by the Ambassador of Argentina, Dr. César Barros Hurtado, consisting of 49 glass objects and 12 rugs. March 29 through April 26, 1959.—Photographs of Argentina by Gustavo Thorlichen, sponsored by the Ambassador of Argentina, Dr. César Barros Hur- tado, consisting of 58 prints. April 19 through May 3, 1959—Stone Rubbings from Angkor Wat (circulated by the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service), consisting of 23 rubbings made from the 12th-century sandstone reliefs. April 19 through May 8, 1959.—Photographs of Angkor Wat (circulated by the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service), consisting of 100 photographs stressing architecture of monuments built by Khmer King, Suryavarman II. April 23 through June 1, 1959.—Turn-of-the-Century Paintings from the Wil- liam T. Evans Collection, consisting of 57 paintings exhibited for the 50th Anniversary American Federation of Arts Convention, was held in the first- floor galleries. A catalog was printed. 126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 May 3 through 21, 1959.—The 26th Annual Exhibition of the Miniature Paint- ers, Sculptors, and Gravers Society of Washington, D.C., consisting of 191 items. A catalog was privately printed. May 3 through 21, 1959.—The 63d Annual National Exhibition of the Washing- ton Water Color Club, consisting of 117 paintings. A catalog was privately printed. June 2 through 9, 1959.—Children’s Paintings from Morocco, a selection from the paintings owned by the Moroccan Hmbassy, consisting of 79 works. June 14 through July 5, 1959.—Highth Interservice Photography Contest, con- sisting of 75 photographs by members of the Armed Forces. Respectfully submitted. Tuomas M. Breas, Director. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the Freer Gallery of Art Sir: I have the honor to submit the 39th annual report on the Freer Gallery of Art, for the year ended June 80, 1959. THE COLLECTIONS Twenty-seven objects were added to the collections by purchase as follows: GLASS 58.16. Syrian, early 14th century. Footed bowl with cover; gilding with red outlines and richly enameled with red, blue, green, white, and yellow eolors forming floral and animal designs; much of it in Chinese style. Height 0.311 x diameter 0.210. (Illustrated. ) LACQUER 59.5. Indian, Dececani school, mid-17th century. Signed by Rahim Dekkani; penbox (qgalamddn) with figural scenes of the life of princes on both sides of the cover; arabesque and floral designs on brick-red outer side walls; gold floral pattern on the greenish-brown bottom and undecorated black interior; two metal chains at sides, and clasp. 0.282 x 0.053 x 0.049. METALWORK 58.15. Indian, Mughal, 17th century (1605-27). Dagger with name of Jahangir on upper chape. Steel blade with central ridge. Ivory flange inlaid with black mastic and gold wire (the hilt flange of walrus ivory is fixed to steel tang by pins ending in two silver rosettes) ; tang sheathed with gold and studded with 16 larger and 34 smaller jewels; guard and two chapes either in silver or niello or in reverse (chapes are now detachable) ; one larger, six smaller stones, and some gold inlay lost, one ivory corner chipped. Length (overall) 0.295 x width of guard 0.210. 58.6. Persian, Seljuq period, 11th century. Gold bracelet; quatrefoil hinge decoration composed of 4 large and 12 small domes with granulation work, and four inlaid turquoises. Diameter 0.106; weight 73.6 grams. 58.7. Persian, Sasanian period. Silver gilt plate; spherical, footless, with spread-eagle design in low, chased relief; framing wreath, double walls; part of gilt worn off; patination. 0.044 x 0.282. 58.14. Persian, Seljuq period, 11th-12th century. Gold bracelet, oval shaped; three rows of conical projections (66 in all), framed by two rows of smaller cones (172 in all); at the top side opening (closed by pin) 4 pairs of confronted dove figures partly executed with filigree, stand on 2 x 11 strands of twisted wire. Maximum diameter (overall) 0.097 x width 0.050; weight 354.5 grams. 127 128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 PAINTING 58.8. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty. Two mynah birds on a branch; a squirrel leaping for a wild grapevine; ink and light color on paper; by Hua Yen (1682-1758) ; artist’s inscription and two of his seals on painting. 0.603 x 1.345. 58.9. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty. Landscape, “A Morning View of the Yao Peak,” by Chiang Shih-chieh (1647-1709) ; two inscriptions by the artist and nine of his seals on the painting; one collector’s seal. 0.540 x 0.242. 58.10. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty, 17th century. Landscape in ink and color on paper; by Hsiao Yiin-ts‘ung; inscription by the artist, signed and dated (1658) ; one seal of the artist. 0.410 x 0.957. 59.1— Indian, Sultanate period, middle or second half of 15th century. Set of 59.4. four miniatures from a manuscript of Amir Khusraw Dihlavi’s Khamse; nasta‘liq writing in four columns; painting in colors on paper. Average: 0.110 x 0.210. 58.4— Japanese, Ashikaga period, Idealistic Chinese school. A pair of 6-fold 58.5. screens painted in ink and color on paper; mountain landscape by Sesshu (1420-1506). Average: 1.610 x 3.512. (58.5 illustrated.) 58.11. Japanese, Kamakura period, Yamatoe school. ‘Yuzu Nembutsu Hugi,” dated 1829; in ink and color on paper. 0.290 x 14.168. 58.12. Japanese, Decorative school, 17th century. Wistaria and other flowers; by Roshi ; ink and color on paper. 1.259 x 0.520. 58.17— Japanese, Ashikaga period, Yamatoe school, 15th century. Set of three; 58.19. landscape-Kumano Mandara; ink, color, and gold on silk. Average: 1.165 x 0.593. 59.8. Japanese, Momoyama, Ukiyoe school, mid-17th century. Scenes in Kyoto, “Gion Festival’; 6-fold screen; ink, color, and gold leaf on paper. 3.480 x 1.505. POTTERY 58.13. Chinese, T‘ang dynasty, San-ts‘ai ware. Bowl with plain rim; clay: buff stoneware; transparent glaze, streaked with brownish-yellow and green; finely crackled; iridescent inside bottom. 0.047 x 0.103. 59.6 Chinese, Sung dynasty, ting ware. Vase of truncated bottle shape with flat base, rounded shoulders, short neck, and flaring lip; clay: fine- grained white stoneware; glaze: transparent, glossy ; decoration: peony scrolls in brown slip with incised details. 0.163 x 0.166. (Illustrated.) 59.7 Chinese, Sung dynasty, celadon, Li-shui type. Covered vase with flaring foot ring; two loop handles; flaring mouth and vertical lip; clay: light- gray porcellaneous stoneware, fired reddish brown; glaze: transparent olive-green with fine crackle; decoration: incised on body, carved on eover. 0.370 (with cover) x 0.165. 59.9 Chinese, Ming dynasty, Hsiian-te period. Bowl, deep with thick walls and flat, low foot ring; clay: fine white porcelain; glaze: transparent, faintly bluish inside and flocculent blue outside, none on base; decoration: incised in the paste outside are waves, dragons, and lotus panels; 6- character mark of the period inside bottom. 0.125 x 0.264. 58.8 Japanese, Edo period, Kakiemon, early 18th century. Octagonal dish: clay: fine white porcelain; glaze: transparent, very slightly mat; deco- ration: two large fish in underglaze blue among water weeds in over- glaze enamels. 0.050 x 0.333. SECRETARY’S REPORT 129 59.10 Japanese, Hdo period, Nabeshima. Shallow dish with high, thin foot ring; clay: fine white porcelain; glaze: transparent; decoration: in under- glaze blue outside and in, the latter combined with overglaze enamels. 0.037 x 0.150. REPAIRS TO THE COLLECTIONS Twenty-nine Chinese, Japanese, and Persian objects were restored, repaired, or remounted by T. Sugiura. In addition, he repaired 18 books for the library. CHANGES IN EXHIBITIONS Changes in exhibitions amounted to 445 as follows: American art: Paintings ese Se 60 Drawings) teers ase 29 Stone sculpture_____- 10 items site eee ere 20 Japanese art: Paintings__ 4 Mighographsy ssa a 18 Korean art: Chinese art: IBTONZG:Sss2422--5=5— 6 BT ONZC eee 34 Jatlen2 ae eee ft Bvory a2 cr ie ses 8 Metalwork ~~ .-.~-__- 6 Lacquers ese 4 Pottery; fis. set cab 65 Christian art: Near Hastern art: Orystalye see ee al Bookbindings —-----_- 10 Glass) se ee es 3 Manuseripisy==—=————- 28 Goldner eee ee. 9 Metalwork —---_----_ 30 Paintings! 22920 = bees 8 Paintings) 2yi2ee Ass 44 Stone sculpture______ 1 Pottery vtes4..-2 18 Indian art: Stone sculpture___--~- PA IBTONZC) 222 eee ee 2 Wood sculpture____-- 2 Manuseripts: 22--——-—— iy Tibetan art: Paintings___~ 4 LIBRARY Among the 1,005 acquisitions for the library of the Freer Gallery, there were 533 welcome gifts from individuals and exchanges from other institutions. Outstanding in the purchases were: Dai kan wa jiten (Great Chinese-Japanese dictionary), 10 of the 13 volumes have been received; Sekai toji zenshu (Catalogue of the world’s ceramics) in 16 volumes, Tokyo, Kawade Shobo, 1955-58; Sekai kokogaku taiket (Archaeology of the world), to be complete in 16 volumes, Tokyo, Heibonsha, 1958-; Pearson, /ndea I[slamicus, 1906-1955, Cambridge, Heffer & Sons, 1958; Kern Institute, Annual bibliography of Indian archaeology, vol. 16 (1948-1953), Leiden, Brill, 1958; Gulik, R. H. van, Chinese pictorial art as viewed by the connoisseur, Roma, 1958; Nishimura Tei, Vamban art, Christian art in Japan, 1549-1639, Tokyo, 1959. The library receives publications from mainland China and ex- changes publications with the Hermitage Museum, Leningrad. 130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 In all, 454 scholars and students other than the Gallery staff read and studied in the library. Twenty interested persons saw the Wash- ington Manuscripts from the vault and studied the facsimiles. In the reshelving of the library a rare book division was estab- lished. This includes these books which are outstanding examples of Japanese rare books: Sanjitrok-kasen (The thirty-six immortals of Japanese poetry), [n.p., Suminokura Soan, n.d.]. Each page con- tains a portrait with the name of the poet and his or her poem. These poets were selected by the poet Fujiwara no Kinto, with illustrations considered to be by Tosa Mitsushige. This is a perfect copy, prob- ably in its original condition. Its slightly tinted papers of yellowish and brownish shades are interleaved with white papers. ‘The sheets are not numbered and there is no other inscription except the names of the poets and their poems. The writings are judged to be in the style of K6éetsu’s calligraphy. The second book is a collection: Utai- bon (one hundred utai for the No plays of Kanze school), first edition. Calligraphy by Honami Koetsu with the 36 designs said to be by Sotatsu, brother-in-law of Koetsu. These are Saga-bon (books printed in Saga) under the patronage of Suminokura Soan, a very wealthy businessman and an ardent pupil of Kéetsu in calligraphy. The paper was probably prepared by “paper maker Ky6ji,” who lived with K6etsu at his villa Takagamine. The papermill was situated by the river Kamiyagawa, which flows near Koetsu’s own villa at Takaga- mine. The books are printed from movable type on both sides of the paper. The sheets are folded once in the center, sewed with red silk, and bound two quires to a volume. The paper is white and colored, heavy, coated with clay, and printed with floral designs in mica. The covers are various-colored papers of the same quality, with dark-tan labels. 100 volumes in 6 lacquer boxes after IKGetsu’s designs. Dr. Yukio Yashiro of Japan, an authority on these books, says the calligraphy on the boxes is not Koetsu’s. These volumes are extremely rare in Japan. The year’s record of cataloging included a total of 1,422 entries of which 666 analytics were made, 425 titles of books and pamphlets were cataloged, and 53 titles were recataloged and reclassified. Of the total of 4,970 cards necessary for the above work, only 610 were available as printed cards from the Library of Congress. PUBLICATIONS Two publications were issued by the Gallery as follows: The Freer Gallery of Art. 16 pp., 8 pls., 2 floor plans, 1 plan of court planting. Rey. ed. 1958. (Smithsonian Inst. Publ. 4185.) Fong, Wén. The lohans and a bridge to heaven. Occas. Pap., vol. 3, No. 1, 64 pp., 18 pls., 1 fig., 1958. (Smithsonian Inst. Publ. 4805.) SECRETARY’S REPORT 131 Papers by staff members appeared in outside publications as fol- lows: CAHILL, JAMES F. Review of “The Arts of the Ming Dynasty.” Catalog of an exhibition organized by the Arts Council of Great Britain and the Ori- ental Ceramie Society. The Journal of Asian Studies, Ann Arbor, vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 289-290, February 1959. Foreword for the exhibition of paintings by Chi Chuan Wang held March 10-April 4, 1959, at Mi Chou Gallery, New York City. Ch‘ien Hsiian and his figure paintings. Archives of the Chinese Art Society of America, vol. 12, pp. 10-29, 1958. ETTINGHAUSEN, RicHARD. An exhibition of the ancient arts of Muslim coun- tries in Lahore. West Pakistan, vol. 1, No. 8, April 1958. Comments on the nature of Islamic art and its symbols. In The Pak- istan Quarterly, vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 39-40, 64, Spring 1958. ‘Abbasidi-la pittura murale la miniature le arte decorative. Enciclo- pedia Universale dell’Arte, vol. 1, col. 10-18. Roma, Istituto per la Col- laborazione Culturale, 1959. ‘Abdu’s-Samad. In Enciclopedia Universale dell’Arte, vol. 1, col. 18-21. Roma, Istituto per la Collaborazione Culturale, 1959. Review of “‘Der Orientalische Kntipfteppich, Versuch einer Darstellung seiner Geschichte,” by K. Erdmann. Oriens, vol. 2, pp. 257-264, 1958. Review of “Islamic Woodcarvers and their Works,” by L. A. Mayer, for The Muslim World, Hartford (Conn.) Seminary Foundation, January 1959, p. 60. GETTENS, RUTHERFORD J. The identification of pigments and inerts on paintings and other museum objects. Application of Science in Examination of Works of Art, Sept. 15-18, 1958, pp. 31-49. Examining tables in use at the Freer Gallery of Art. Studies in Con- servation, vol. 4, pp. 23-27, illus., February 1959. Porr, JOHN ALEXANDER. Two Chinese porcelains in the Umezawa Collection. Yamato Bunka No. 28, pp. 1-12, December 1958. Chinese characters in Brunei and Sarawak ceramics. The Sarawak Museum Journal, vol. 3, No. 11 (new series), pp. 267-272, 1958. STERN, Harotp P. Ukiyoe paintings; selected problems. University of Michi- gan, 1958. WEsT, ELISABETH HERARD. A ring-mount for micro-cross-sections of paint and other materials. In Studies in Conservation, vol. 4, pp. 27-31, illus., Feb- ruary 1959. PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY AND SALES DESK The photographic laboratory made 6,960 items during the year, as follows: 4,072 prints, 606 negatives, 1,894 color slides, 405 black-and- white slides, and 88 color film sheets. In all, 2,463 slides were lent during the year. At the sales desk 23,921 items were sold, compris- ing 2,098 publications and 21,823 reproductions (including postcards, slides, photographs, reproductions in the round, etc.). BUILDING AND GROUNDS The exterior walls of the building appear to be in good condition, but the roof has begun to show signs of wear. The exterior doors at 132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 the north and south entrances were refinished to an antique bronze, and a brass handrail was installed at the north entrance. Window sills throughout the building have been painted, and painting of struc- tural steel and metalwork in the attic was begun. Four bookcases were completed for the library and one for the office of the Assistant Director, and work on exhibition cases for the gal- leries continued, A radial saw was installed in the cabinet shop, and a cabinet for a print dryer for the photographic laboratory and light- proof equipment for the technical laboratory were constructed. Gal- lery benches were redesigned and upholstered. All trees, plants, and shrubs appear to be doing very well. The Meyer zoysia grass is making an excellent showing, except for two small plots on the south side that are in complete shade for the winter season. Experiments are being made to correct this situation. Vinca and Gomphrena planted around the fountain for the present season are doing very well. ATTENDANCE The Gallery was open to the public from 9 to 4:30 every day except Christmas Day. The total number of visitors to come in the main entrance was 119,333. The highest monthly attendance was in Au- gust, 14,891, and the lowest was in December, 4,018. There were 2,508 visitors to the office for the following purposes: Morceneral information] 2. = Sone oe ee 1, 012 RO SUDMITE OD] CCES LOL excep EY ETO TN ee 470 TO. See SLATE AMeM DCTS 35 a se es Sn a ee ee 193 To take photographs in court or exhibition galleries___.______________ 127 ER COE Ua Chae eV DDT PD We SRITS Yo ea a alee Se 454 Tousee buildinevandvinstallations.-— soe. —. sas ee gee ee 37 TOpexamine, OF DOrrow; SUG eS =~ == a= es ee ee 41 Torpsketehtines all ericsh ss: sass Se Se ee ee ee 3 To see objects in storage: NGOS CCN Celia ee ee ae ees 23 Christian art (Washing tony MIS S)))222)s eee == oe eee 46 Far Hastern jade, lacquer, wood, ivory, ete________-__------_-- 20 Har Hasterngmetalworks-26 225 as oe ee ee et 28 Harshasternapain tin gs see ee ees a ee eee 183 Har; Hastern; pottery 222 3 4 bes Sey ere Ee ee de ee 35 Near Eastern bookbindings, glass, ete________--_____-_=_------_ qT Nearer bastern metalwork! 228-52 52S eo eee eee Bas If INearshasterny painting Same ei ose pene ee ee ee 26 Near Hastern: “pottery Se Sse Ae Se Sie MA See 2 et See 10 AUDITORIUM The series of illustrated lectures was continued as follows: 1958 October 7. Dr. Richard Ettinghausen, Curator of Near Eastern Art, Freer Gallery of Art. “Paintings of the Sultans and Em- perors of India.” Attendance, 296. 1958 November 4. 1959 January 6. February 10. March 10. April 7. SECRETARY’S REPORT hays" Basil Gray, Keeper of Oriental Antiquities, British Museum, London, England. “Five Hundred Years of Chinese Wall Painting at Tun-huang.” Attendance, 298. Dr. Wén Fong, Princeton University. ‘How to Look at Chinese Paintings.” Attendance, 298. Miss Elizabeth Lyons, Queens College, New York City. “Temple Paintings of Thailand.” Attendance, 234. Harold P. Stern, Associate Curator of Japanese Art, Freer Gallery of Art. “Popular Paintings of Tokugawa, Japan.” Attendance, 157. Dr. John A. Pope, Assistant Director, Freer Gallery of Art. “Hinduism and Buddhism at Angkor.” Attendance, 326. Outside organizations used the auditorium as follows: 1958 August 13. Ikebana International held a meeting during which. Miss Seikoh Ogawa gave a demonstration and illustrated lec- ture on “Japanese Flower Arrangement.” Attendance, 428. September 23-26. The U.S. Department of Agriculture, Marketing Workshop, 1959 January 8-9. January 13-20. January 27. Tebruary 2. February 19. April 2. April 14— June 29. May 6. May 20. June 2. June 18. held meetings with attendance as follows: 82, 96, 83, and 127 ; total, 388. The U.S. Department of Agriculture, federal Extension Serv- ice, held meetings with attendance as follows: 96 and 81; total, 177. The U.S. Department of Agriculture held all-day meetings of Administrative Conference (Telephone) with attendance as follows: 121 and 124; total, 245. The U.S. Department of Agriculture, Under Secretary’s Office, held a meeting of the Farmers’ Union. Attendance, 156. The District of Columbia Psychological Association held an evening meeting. Attendance, 62. The U.S. Department of Health, Wducation, and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration, held a seminar on “Meta- bolic Fate of Drugs in Different Species.” Attendance, 167. The U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, showed a movie on Africa. Attendance, 153. Twelve rehearsals were held by a group from the Smithsonian Institution for a musical program of 15th-century music using antique musical instruments. The U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration, held an all-day meeting. Attendance, 82. The Smithsonian Institution sponsored an illustrated lecture by H. Alan Lloyd on “Pre-Renaissance Clocks and Their Influence.” Attendance, 92. The Museum Store Managers held a meeting; cochairmen were Mrs. Elizabeth Ostertag, National Gallery of Art, and Mrs. Lnor O. West, Freer Gallery of Art. A talk on “Copy- right” was given by Richard MacCarteney, Copyright Divi- sion, Library of Congress. Attendance, 35. The U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food Extension Service, and The 4-H Club held a meeting. Attendance, 112. 134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 1959 June 24. American Library Association, Art Section, Chairman, Mrs. Bertha Usilton, librarian, Freer Gallery of Art, held a meeting. A talk was given on “A New Program in the Documentation of Art.” Attendance, 220. June 30. The Smithsonion Institution, Division of Cultural History, presented “A Program of 15th-Century Music.” Attend- ance, 361. On October 8, 1958, the Gallery was open in the evening and docent service was given by Dr. James Cahill and Rutherford J. Gettens to a group of nine members of the Executive Committee, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry; Dr. Edward Wichers headed this distinguished group. STAFF ACTIVITIES The work of the staff members has been devoted to the study of new accessions, of objects contemplated for purchase, and of objects sub- mitted for examination, as well as to individual research projects in the fields represented by the collections of Chinese, Japanese, Per- sian, Arabic, and Indian materials. Reports, oral and written, and exclusive of those made by the technical laboratory (listed below) were made on 8,637 objects as follows: For private individuals, 4,785; for dealers, 1,619; for other museums, 2,233. In all, 834 photo- graphs were examined, and 1,151 Oriental language inscriptions were translated for outside individuals and institutions. By request, 20 groups totaling 430 persons met in the exhibition galleries for docent service by the staff members. Five groups totaling 101 persons were given docent service by staff members in the storage rooms. Among the visitors were 87 distinguished foreign scholars or per- sons holding official positions in their own countries who came here under the auspices of the State Department to study museum admin- istration and practices in this country. During the year the technical laboratory carried on the following activities: Mreer:Gallery: objectstexamined ssa. ome Eee ees 115 Microchemicallliy p22 2s sect sai toate bn. south eee 2 Se 2 Microscopicallysce see eee 2S ne a er 2 eee eee 36 UW itireaivat OO) Gi ee es ER oe a ees 30 EXEL AVA Gilera CELLONE = ie we ee eee eee Markt Ae eee ee ee 31 Ghemical analysis 2220 Se epee epee ig es PA Treated! cleaned ror repaired St 2 See ees Sa ES 37 Outside, objects examin eas he a NE ee a Se 107 Microchemicallliy: eset s Se ak ake a ee eee ee 2 23 Microscopically: saat see. = ETE wok cones Pea ei ee 2 ee 45 WlbraviGletiy saat chk 8 pe ee ree RT I es ea 41 Deray) diftractions44 sts Sess ee eee ee ee en eee 4 Treated: cleaned: for repaired some Reta eae cn 6 PLATE 5 Secretary's Report, 1959 “WV jo Alayey Tool yf 94} JO SUOTIDI[OD 94} O} SUOTIIPPR JUDI9x 9T8S PLATE 6 Secretary's Report, 1959 WV fo Alay[e Too1 our jo SUOT]D9]][O9 94} OF uolIppe JUIIO YY $°8S SECRETARY’S REPORT 135 The following projects were undertaken by the laboratory during the year: 1. During February and March Mr. Gettens spent 2 weeks, and Miss West 6 weeks, working as guests in the Chemistry Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, Long Island, N.Y. The project of spectrochemical analysis of some 30 inscribed ceremonial bronzes from the Freer collection, which was begun last year, was brought nearly to completion. 2. Chemical anaylsis of the same series of bronzes by conventional wet methods was completed. 3. Examination of some 550 jade objects in the Freer collection, which included X-ray diffraction analysis of 150 jades, was completed. 4. Mr. Gettens took over editorship of Abstracts of the Technical Literature and Archaeology and the Fine Arts, published by the International Institute for Conservation of Museum Objects, London, England. 5. The systematic collection of data on the technology of ancient copper and bronze in the Far East was continued. 6. Studies on the corrosion products of ancient metal objects were continued. During the year, 4 written reports were made and 128 verbal reports given on objects examined in the technical laboratory. By invitation the following lectures were given outside the Gallery by staff members (illustrated unless otherwise noted) : 1958 July 1. Dr. Cahill, to the Society for Asian Art, San Francisco, Calif., ‘Painting Albums in China and Japan.” Attend- ance, 100. September 1. Dr. Pope, at a session of the Division of Esthetics, Sympo- sium of the American Psychological Association, Statler Hotel, Washington, D.C., ‘‘The Freer Gallery of Art.” Attendance, 150. September 3. Dr. Cahill, at the Fourth Conference on Chinese Thought, Aspen, Colo., “‘Confucian Elements in Chinese Painting Theory.” Attendance, 16. (Not illustrated.) September 15. Mr. Gettens, at the Seminar on Applications of Science in Examination of Works of Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass., “Identification of Pigments.” Attend- ance, 73. November 3. Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, Md., “Islam.” Attendance, 183. December 11. Dr. Cahill, at the University of Chicago, Chicago, IIl., “Two Concepts of Painting in China.’”’ Attendance, 50. December 12. Dr. Cahill, at the University of Chicago, Chicago, IIL, “The Theory of Literati Painting.” Attendance, 60. December 14. Mr, Stern, at the California Palace of the Legion of Honor, San Francisco, Calif., ‘The Korean Exhibition.” At- tendance, 100. 536608—60——10 136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 1959 January 15. Dr. Ettinghausen, at the annual Regents’ dinner, Smith- sonian Institution, ‘Objects Dealing with Christmas Themes in the Freer Gallery Collections.” Attendance 34, January 16. Mr. Stern, to the Japan-American Society, Georgetown Presbyterian Church, Washington, D.C., ‘‘Hokusai.” Attendance, 30. January 29. Dr. Cahill, to the College Art Association, Cleveland, Ohio, “‘Criteria of Evaluation in Chinese Criticism of Painting.” Attendance, 60. January 30. Dr. Pope, at the Antiques Forum, Williamsburg, Va., “‘Chinese Export Porcelain in Perspective.” Attendance, 395. February 3. Mr. Stern, at the Los Angeles County Museum, Los Angeles, Calif., ‘The Korean Exhibition.” Attendance, 350. February 9. Mr. Stern, to the Society for Asian Arts, San Francisco, Calif., “Hokusai.” Attendance, 150. March 17. Dr. Cahill, at the Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Mass., “Two Concepts of Painting in China.” Attendance, 60. March 18. Dr, Cahill, at the Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Mass., “The Theory of Literati Painting.”’ Attendance, 60. March 19. Dr. Cahill, at Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., “Yiian Dynasty Painting.” Attendance, 12. April 9. Dr. Pope, to the American Oriental Society, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., ‘‘Notes on Saga of Porce- lain: How Old Is Koimari?’”’ Attendance, 100. April 10. Dr. Ettinghausen, to the American Oriental Society, Uni- versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., ‘Miniatures Related to the ‘Demotte’ Shah-nadmeh.”” Attendance, 75. April 16. Mr. Stern, at Yale University, New Haven, Conn. “Hokusai the Painter.’”’ Attendance, 110. April 30. Mr. Stern, to the Japan Society, New York City, “Japanese Art, Visual Aspects.’”? Attendance, 60. May 7. Dr. Pope, at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va., “Temples of Angkor.”’ Attendance, 175. May 23. Mr. Gettens, to the Eastern New York American Chemical Society, Top of the World Inn, Lake George, N.Y., “Adventures in Archaeological Chemistry.”” Attendance, 50. Members of the staff traveled outside Washington on official busi- ness as follows: 1958 June 20- Dr. Pope, in Europe, examined objects in museums and August 11. private collections as follows: London: British Museum, Percival David Foundation, Victoria and Albert Museum, and six private collections; Amsterdam: Museum for Asiatic Art and one private collection; The Hague: One private collection; Brussels: Musée du Cinquantenaire and Stoclet Collection; Athens: Benaki Museum; Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente; Venice: Oriental Museum; Lugano: Dubose Collection and Vanotti Collection. 1958 July 1-3. July 7. July 17-18. September 3-11. September 11. September 12. September 12. September 13-15. September 15. September 15-17. September 15-18. October 11-22. October 22. October 23-25. October 23-25. SECRETARY’S REPORT 137 Mr. Stern, in New York City with Dr. George Switzer of the U. §. National Museum, examined the Vetlesen jade collection, and arranged for transportation as a gift to the Smithsonian Institution. Mr. Gettens, with Dr. Harold Plenderleith of the British Museum, London, England, visited the Mellon Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa., where Dr. Robert Feller showed them installations. Mr. Gettens, with Dr. Harold Plenderleith, attended the Seminar on Museum Science at the Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Del. Dr. Cahill, in Aspen, Colo., attended the ‘‘Conference on Chinese Thought.” Mr. Wenley, in Ann Arbor, Mich., conferred with the Freer Fund Committee, head of the art department, and editors at the University of Michigan. Dr. Ettinghausen, in Baltimore, Md., examined Near East- ern manuscripts and miniatures in the Baltimore Museum of Art. Dr. Cahill, in Chicago, Ill., examined Chinese paintings at the Art Institute of Chicago. Dr. Cahill, in New York City, examined objects at dealers. Dr. Pope, in Baltimore, Md., examined one Japanese sculp- ture in the Baltimore Museum of Art. Mr. Stern, in Ann Arbor, Mich., consulted with Doctoral Committee at the University of Michigan. Mr. Gettens, in Boston, Mass., attended a Seminar on Appli- cation of Science in Examination of Works of Art at the Museum of Fine Arts; participated in the ceremonies to honor Edward Waldo Forbes, director emeritus of the Fogg Art Museum, on his 85th birthday. Dr. Ettinghausen, in Cleveland, Ohio, examined Rajasthani miniatures belonging to G. K. Kanoria, Calcutta, India, exhibited in the Cleveland Museum of Art; examined Mughal, Rajasthani, and Pahari miniatures in a private collection; examined and photographed 4 Mughal minia- tures in the Cleveland Museum of Art; in Ann Arbor, Mich., examined 40 pieces of pottery in the Museum of Art, University of Michigan; examined 1 Persian manu- script and photographed 3 Persian miniatures in a private collection; in Detroit, Mich., examined 1 Indian miniature and 1 Egyptian ceremonial mace in the Detroit Institute of Art. Mr. Gettens and Miss Elisabeth H. West, in Upton, Long Island, N.Y., visited Brookhaven National Laboratory where technical matters were discussed with Dr. E. V. Sayre, and other members of the Chemistry Department. Dr. Pope, in New York City, examined 30 objects at dealers. Attended a meeting of the American Council of Learned Societies, Committee on Asia. Mr. Gettens, in Brooklyn, N.Y., attended a ‘‘Conference on Conservation” at the Brooklyn Museum. Served as a member of the ad hoc committee on Resolutions for Exploratory Conference on Conservation. 138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 1958 November 1. November 3-4, November 8-11. November 20-26. December 8-10. 1959 February 1-24, February 11. February 16-26. February 16-27. February 18-20. March 17-22. April 8-12. April 8-14. Mrs. Usilton and Mrs. Hogenson, in Baltimore, Md., at- tended an all-day meeting of Regional Catalogers of Maryland, Virginia, and District of Columbia at the Peabody Institute. Dr. Ettinghausen, in Baltimore, Md., examined 1 Christian- Arab dagger, 1 Turkish box, 1 Moroccan dagger, 4 Indian manuscripts, and 10 Indian miniatures in the Walters Art Gallery; did research work in their library. Mr. Stern, in New York City, examined 141 objects at dealers. Looked at the collections of the Museum of Modern Art; examined 30 pieces of Japanese porcelain and 1 Japanese painting at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Dr. Cahill, in New York City, examined 30 Chinese paint- ings in private collections, and 88 objects at dealers. Dr. Cahill, in Boston and Cambridge, Mass., examined 86 Chinese paintings in the Museum of Fine Arts, and 24 Chinese paintings at the Fogg Art Museum. Mr. Stern, in Los Angeles, Calif., examined 50 Far Eastern objects in the Los Angeles County Museum, and 62 objects in private collections; in San Diego, examined 60 Japanese objects in the Museum of Art; in Santa Barbara, examined 145 Chinese and Japanese objects in the Museum of Art, and 215 Far Eastern objects in private collections; in San Francisco, examined 40 Indian paint- ings at the De Young Memorial Museum, 406 objects belonging to various dealers, and 457 Far Eastern objects in private collections. In Kansas City, examined 207 Far Eastern objects in the William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art, and 35 Indian bronzes in a private col- lection. In Chicago, examined 43 Far Eastern objects in the Art Institute of Chicago, and 25 Japanese paintings in private collections. Dr. Ettinghausen, in Baltimore, Md., examined objects in the Walters Art Gallery. Mr. Gettens, in Upton, Long Island, N.Y., continued the spectrographie analysis of Chinese bronzes begun last year at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. Miss Elisabeth H. West, in Upton, Long Island, N.Y., continued the spectrographic analysis of Chinese bronzes begun last year at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined objects at dealers. Dr. Cahill, in Cambridge, Mass., examined 12 Far Eastern paintings at the Fogg Art Museum, and 41 paintings in private collections; in Boston, examined 17 paintings at the Museum of Fine Arts. Dr. Pope, in Ann Arbor, Mich., attended a meeting of the American Oriental Society; examined 100 objects in the University Museum of Anthropology. Dr. Ettinghausen, in Ann Arbor, Mich., attended a meeting of the American Oriental Society; examined 155 Persian objects and 20 transparencies of Persian miniatures at a special exhibition in the Museum of the Near East. SECRETARY’S REPORT 139 1959 April 15-17. Mr. Stern, in New Haven, Conn., examined 40 Japanese prints and 50 Japanese paintings at the Yale University Art Museum; in New York City, examined 160 objects belonging to dealers. April 24-29. Dr. Pope, in New York City, attended meetings of the American Council of Learned Societies, Joint Committee on the Award of Fellowships; examined 136 Far Eastern objects belonging to dealers. April 30—-May 1. Mr. Stern, in New York City, examined 35 objects belong- ing to dealers. May 8. Dr. Pope, in Charlottesville, Va., examined 4 Chinese paintings and 15 pieces of Chinese pottery in a private collection. May 12-18. Dr. Pope, in New York City, attended meetings of the American Council of Learned Societies, Committee on Asia; examined a number of objects in the Metropolitan Museum of Art; in Boston, Mass., presided at meetings of the Far Eastern Ceramic Group at the Museum of Fine Arts. May 23-30. Mr. Stern, in Cambridge, Mass., conferred with Robert Treat Paine, Jr., at the Fogg Art Museum, and Prof. James N. Plumer of the University of Michigan; in New York City, examined 170 objects belonging to dealers, and 52 objects in two museums. May 23. Mr. Gettens, in Lake George, N.Y., attended meetings of the Eastern New York American Chemical Society. June 1-4. Mr. Gettens, in Pittsburgh, Pa., attended meetings of the American Association of Museums. He presided as chairman of the Temporary Committee of the Inter- national Institute for the Conservation of Museum Objects, at a meeting for the purpose of forming the American Group. Mr. Gettens left for Europe on June 14, 1959, to attend meetings of the International Council of Museums in Copenhagen and Stock- holm, and en route, to consult with colleagues and visit collections in Scotland, England, and Belgium. As in former years, members of the staff undertook a wide variety of peripheral duties outside the Gallery, served on committees, held honorary posts, and received recognitions. On June 9, 1959, the Gallery cooperated with the Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Trustees for Harvard University, in sponsoring a performance of Gagaku, the musicians and dancers of the Imperial Japanese Household. This ancient company made its first journey outside of Japan, thanks to the interest and influence of Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold, to perform before the United Nations in New York. A 2-week schedule followed under the auspices of the New York City Ballet Company; and it was the generosity of the latter organization that made possible the single ap- pearance in Washington. Over 500 invited guests attended the production in the gardens of Dumbarton Oaks. 140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 The Freer Gallery of Art again participated in the Wellesley- Vassar Washington Summer Intern Program designed for students inter- ested in obtaining rounded experience in the general operation and purposes of a gallery, and in broadening familiarity with the field of art in general. Miss Nancy Orbison, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N.Y., served as our volunteer for this program during the summer of 1959. Respectfully submitted. A. G. Wentey, Director. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the National Air Museum Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- ties of the National Air Museum for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1959. On September 6, 1958, President Eisenhower signed the bill (S. 1958), originally introduced by Senator Clinton P. Anderson and passed by the 85th Congress, authorizing and directing the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution to prepare plans, including drawings and specifications, for the construction of a suitable building for a National Air Museum to be located on the site bounded by Fourth and Seventh Streets SW., Independence Avenue, and Jefferson Drive. Thus, with the passage of this act (Public Law 85-935), another step forward has been taken toward the provision of adequate housing for the National Air Museum. The architectural firm of Harbeson, Hough, Livingston & Larson, of Philadelphia, Pa., is making prelim- inary studies and an estimate of planning costs for the building. A number of significant accessions were received. Among these were the first recovered nose cone from outer space, a replica of the Jupiter C rocket and satellite Explorer I, a recovered data capsule from outer space, some original documents of the early experiments in rocketry by Dr. Robert H. Goddard, and a Curtiss-Wright Jr. airplane. Considerable progress was made in the improvement and prepara- tion of storage and restoration facilities. Plans for a new exhibit in the Aircraft Building were approved, and construction will begin this fall. It is expected that the new exhibit will be opened in the spring of 1960. Information service in the form of technical, historical, and bio- graphical information pertaining to the development of aviation, furnished to Government agencies, schools, research workers, authors, students, and the public, increased in scope and in volume during the year. Many useful acquisitions to the Museum’s library, reference, and photographic files were received. New staff members reporting for duty include Kenneth E. Newland, curator; Robert Meyer, junior curator; and Robert Wood, museum aide. Walter M. Male, associate curator, has been assigned to Suitland, Md., as operations manager in charge of the Museum’s restoration program. 141 142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 ADVISORY BOARD Although no meetings of the Advisory Board were held during the year, the members have been consulted from time to time on important museum activities. One member of the Board, Grover C. Loening, gave the Lester D. Gardner Lecture in Washington, under the spon- sorship of the National Air Museum. SPECIAL EVENTS Several notable presentation ceremonies were held during the year. Outstanding was the presentation of the Jupiter C rocket and Ex- plorer I satellite by Secretary of the Army Wilber M. Brucker, on January 31, 1959, the anniversary date of the placing of the first American satellite into orbit. Other special ceremonies included the presentation of a recovered data capsule by Gen. Bernard Schriever, U.S. Air Force; a working model of the Vanguard satellite, presented by Dr. John P. Hagen of NASA; and the first recovered nose cone, presented by Secretary of the Army Wilber M. Brucker. In each in- stance Dr. Carmichael accepted the gift for the Museum with ap- propriate remarks. The Director attended the World Congress of Flight at Las Vegas, Nev., April 12-18, and from there proceeded to the National Aviation Educational Council held at Riverside, Calif., April 19-20, 1959. The head curator and historian, Paul E. Garber, represented the Museum at a number of events identified with aviation history. These included the Vanguard satellite anniversary banquet; the annual meeting of the American Helicopter Society; the National Rocket Club annual banquet; the annual meeting of the Early Birds; and the National Postage Stamp Show. He delivered 13 lectures during the year and conducted 6 special tours of the Museum for groups of military visitors. He also participated in a number of television and radio programs during the year and paid visits to Hammondsport, New York, and St. Louis on Museum business. Both the Director and head curator were appointed by the National Aeronautic Association as members of the committee to select the annual recipient of the National Frank G. Brewer Award for Aviation Education. IMPROVEMENTS IN EXHIBITS The aircraft, engines, and other aviation equipment scheduled for display in the new exhibit for the Aircraft Building are being cleaned, repaired, and made ready for exhibition. A general cleaning and renovation of exhibits and some minor re- pairs were undertaken. SECRETARY’S REPORT 143 REPAIR, PRESERVATION, AND RESTORATION A small office has been provided at the Suitland storage facility, and a paint and spray booth is under construction. A fabric department and document room are in process of planning. Additional machine tools and equipment have been acquired. Most of the aircraft and en- gines in the Aircraft Building have been moved to Suitland and are undergoing cleaning, repair, and preparation for storage or exhibition. In anticipation of the restoration program which lies ahead in preparation for the new building, the Director has visited many air- craft factories and has received assurances of cooperation from the manufacturers by way of providing us with technical data, lending mechanics to assist in restoration and to advise on methods of display. ASSISTANCE TO GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS The National Air Museum has served many Government depart- ments during the year. Among these were the Department of Justice in connection with patent litigation, the Voice of America, the De- partment of the Air Force, and the Department of the Navy. PUBLIC INFORMATION SERVICES Providing information to the public continues as a very active and growing function of the Museum. For example, telephone calls dur- ing the year requesting historical, technical, or biographical informa- tion on the development of aviation numbered more than 700 from Government agencies and more than 1,400 from other sources. Corre- spondence is averaging around 100 letters a week. Approximately 19,000 leaflets were distributed during the year, in addition to some 1,100 photographs and drawings. The Museum continues to serve aircraft manufacturers, airlines, publishers, authors, schools and colleges, and many individual stu- dents, teachers, and research workers. REFERENCE MATERIAL AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many useful and valuable additions to the reference files, photo- graphic files, and library of the Museum were received during the year. These records and documents are helpful to the Museum staff in providing information service, authenticating data, and for research. The cooperation of the following persons and organizations in providing this material is sincerely appreciated : ArR Forcr, DEPARTMENT OF THE, AIR Force Museum, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: Negatives of flight of Col. Charles A. Lindbergh and Anne Morrow Lindbergh in the Lockheed Sirius seaplane Tingmissartog, 1929. AIR UNIVERSITY, Maxwell Field, Ala.: Pamphlets of USAF Historical Studies No. 98. 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 ARMY, DEPARTMENT OF THE, INFORMATION OFFICE, U.S. MrtirAry ACADEMY, West Point, N.Y.: Photograph “Cenotaph at Post Cemetery,’ dedicated to Lt. Thomas Selfridge. Pustic INFORMATION OFFICE, MILITARY DisTRICYT OF WASH- INGTON, Gravelly Point, Va.: Pictorial record and articles relating to Wright- Selfridge flight. OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF INFORMATION, Washington, D.C.: Tape recording of the presentation ceremony of the Explorer I. Photograph of Explorer I. ARTISTS AND WRITERS PRESS, INc., New York, N.Y. (Caroline Ungemah) : The Story of Flight—A Giant Golden Book. BauscH & LoMsB OptTicat Co., Rochester, N.Y.: Copies of booklet “Reprint of First Exhibition of the Aeronautic Society of New York,” at Morris Park, New York City, November 3, 1908. BrrcH Arrorart Corp., Wichita, Kans.: A collection of photographs and 3-view drawings of Beech aircraft. BorEInG AIRPLANE Co., Washington, D.C.: Photographs of Boeing 707 jetplane. Briok, Mrs. Kay, Norwood, N.J.: Official programs of the Women’s Transconti- nental Races. Bronson, C. L.. Lookout Mountain, Tenn.: Photographs of Glenn H. Curtiss and Curtiss airplanes. Brown, Mas. KimprouaH 8., USAF, Bedford, Mass.: A copy of his recent book “Von Richthofen and the Flying Circus.” BURKE, JUSTIN J., Dubuque, Iowa: Notarized statement and supporting docu- ments relating to and describing the first installation of navigation lights on military airplanes, Hllington Field, Tex., 1918. CAFFREY, Francis J., Liverpool, N.Y.: A collection of pamphlets and material pertaining to aircraft and flight operations. CANADATR LimiTED, Montreal, Canada: A collection of photographs and descrip- tive literature on Canadian aircraft. Casry, Louis S., Washington, D.C.: A collection of handbooks pertaining to Consolidated PBY-5, Pratt and Whitney Twin Wasp C series, and Twin Wasp C38 series. CEessnA ArgcorAFT Co., Wichita, Kans.: A collection of photographs and a geneal- ogy chart of Cessna aircraft. Photograph of Clyde V. Cessna and Dwayne L. Wallace, 1954. Three-view drawings of Cessna aircraft as follows: 305 A, B, and C; 321; 140A; 170A; 120; 140; H-001; DC6; CW-6; C-106A; FC-1; C-165; T-37; LC—126; 170; 172; 175; 180; 182; 310 Band C; T-50; Monoplane; Gobel Special; and Glider. CoHEN, Compr. ALBERT M., USNR, Retired, Wynnewood, Pa.: A collection of photographs re: Brest, France, and vicinity, U.S. Navy Aviation Section, WWI. CooxkEr, DAvip C., Valley Stream, N.Y.: A copy of his book “Bomber Planes That Made History.” CornisH, J. J., 83d, Mississippi State University, State College, Miss.: A copy of his article “The Flight of Seeds.” DEARBORN HISTORICAL MUSEUM, Dearborn, Mich.: Booklet entitled ‘“‘Tin Goose.” DruTscHES MusruM, Munchen, Germany: Fabric section duplicating the color scheme from the Fokker D—VII in possession of Deutsches Museum. EASTERN AIRLINES, New York, N.Y.: Photostats from Fokker Catalog re: Fokker Universal and Super Universal aircraft. Emmons, Conant, Washington, D.C.: Four glass negatives of Wright Type “A” airplane at Fort Myer, 1909. Esso Export Corp., New York, N.Y.: A collection of magazines (bound volumes) : Flight, The Aeroplane, and Aviation Week. Esso STANDARD Ort Co., W. H. Keprret, New York, N.Y.: A collection of refer- ence material on Curtiss H-16 flying boat. SECRETARY’S REPORT 145 Ferry Service, Inc., Pontiac, Mich.: Drawings of Stinson aircraft models with the exception of models 108 and L-5. FRANKLIN InstirutTse, Philadelphia, Pa.: Blueprints of Wilford Gyroseaplane. Froyp, Mrs. SHIRLEY B., Pasadena, Calif.: Newspaper and magazine clippings on aviation, period 1925-27. Goopwin, GARLAND O., San Diego, Calif.: Drawing of Montgomery glider of 1883. GRIFFENHAGEN, GEORGE, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.: A collection of timetables for various airlines. GRUMMAN AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING CorP., Bethpage, N.Y.: A collection of specifi- eations, brochures, and photographs of Grumman “Gulfstream” aircraft. Pilots’ handbooks for Model F8F, and Erection and Maintenance manual for the F8F-1 aircraft. Hatsety, Miss Marton S., Washington, D.C.: Two aircraft identification booklets. HERRICK, Mrs. GrrarD P., New York, N.Y.: A collection of materials of the late Girard P. Herrick, Records of Invention; reference books; “Story of the Heli- copter” ; and engineers’ handbooks. Hitt, JAMES N. B., Boston, Mass.: Booklet entitled ‘Kites and Experiments in Aerial Photographs.” Hirxson & JORGENSEN, Inc., Los Angeles, Calif.: Lithographs, Leach “Heritage of the Air” series, copy proofs 1 through 5. HutTcoHInson, RoLtanp V., Birmingham, Mich.: A collection of photographs of first DH-4 brought to the United States from England. Donated to NAM via A. V. Verville. JET PIONEERS ASSOCIATION, C/o GENERAL HLEcTRIG Co., West Lynn, Mass.: Leather-bound looseleaf binder containing photographs of the Jet Pioneers of U.S.A. Kaui, Otro, New York, N.Y.: Roll of poster paper 30 feet in length on which is recorded by Kronfeld his important glider flights. Lez, FreD B., c/o OLIN MaTHIeEson CHEMICAL CorpP., Washington, D.C.: Three books, Aeronautical Annual for 1895, 1896, and 1897. Three separate volumes. LocKHEED AIRCRAFT Corp., Burbank, Calif.: A collection of photographs and 3- view drawings of Lockheed Sirius, reference and historical information on the aircraft. MASUNAGE, KANOSUKE, USHIO SHOBO PUBLISHING Co., Tokyo, Japan: A collec- tion of photographs of Japanese and captured American aircraft: Army type 99 trainer, type 98 light bomber, Navy type 96 carrier fighter, Douglas DC-5, Boeing B-17E, Douglas A-20A, and Brewster F2A-2 “Buffalo.” McCoy, Joun T., New York, N.Y.: Two paintings (reproductions), The Wright Brothers at Fort Myer, Va., July 30, 1909; and Eugene Ely taking off from the U.S.S. Pennsylvania, January 18, 1911. McoDonnety Arrorart Corp., St. Louis, Mo.: Two photocopies of 3-view drawing of McDonnell FH-1 Phantom. MIKESH, Capt. Ropert C., APO 994, San Francisco, Calif.: Color film of kite festival held in Japan. MILLER, REAR ApM. H. B., USN, Retired, New York, N.Y.: Collection of photo- graphs of operational use of Curtiss F9C-2. Munson, H. A., Charlottesville, Va.: Booklet entitled ‘“Santos-Dumont, Father of Aviation.” NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS, LANGLEY Fir~tp LABORATORY, Va.: Reference material. NATIONAL BROADCASTING Co., New York, N.Y.: Transcript of Paul E. Garber’s talk on his recollections of the Postal Aviation Service. Navy, DEPARTMENT OF THE, BUREAU or AERONAUTICS, Washington, D.C.: A col- lection of photographs of historic aircraft and aviation personages. Verville 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Aircraft Co.’s brochures on the Verville Air Coach and Verville Sports Training Plane. Drawings of HS2L and JN4D aircraft. Drawings of US-D4, Army Curtiss Racer, 1922, Navy Curtiss Seaplane Racer R2C-2, and PW-1. NELSON, CHARLES P., Lynn, Mass.: Typed copy of story of cruise of the ZR-1 Shenandoah from Lakehurst, N.J., to St. Louis, Mo., and return. PAN AMERICAN WORLD AIRWAYS SystEM, New York, N.Y.: Photostats of Lind- bergh’s survey report (Lockheed Sirius), background information on survey for Pan American. Photographs of Lindbergh’s arrival at Belem. PUTNAM’s, G. P., Sons, New York, N.Y.: Book entitled “Fighting Planes That Made History,” by David Cooke. RoyaL CANADIAN AtR Force, S/L R. Woop, Trenton, Ontario, Canada: Plans of aircraft (3 sets of 8 plans) of RCAF types Fairchild 71, A. W. Atlas, DeHavil- land-60, Vickers Bedette, Curtiss Canuck, Curtiss HS2L, Avro 504K, and A. W. Siskin. ScHWEIZER AtrorArr Corp., Elmira, N.Y.: A collection of photographs and 3-view drawings of Schweizer 2—22C, 1-23G, and 1-30 experimental light plane. Srkorsky ArrcoraFt Co., Stratford, Conn.: A collection of photographs and speci- fications on Sikorsky S-38, S-39, S-40, S-51, S-52, S-55, S-56, S-58, S-62, and H-18. Drawings and photographs of PS-3 (S-38). Photographs of Sikorsky HSS-2 Amphibious Helicopter. SUBMARINE Liprary, Groton, Conn.: A collection of drawings and photographs of Loening amphibians. TuHomMpsoN, Mrs. R., Huntington, Long Island, N.Y.: Photographs and magazine article, “Cross Country Flight of ‘Yankee Doodle,’” by Harry J. Tucker, and “Wings for Our Business.” Two 8- by 10-inch photographs of Lockheed Vega Yankee Doodle. THOMPSON Propucts, INc., Cleveland, Ohio: Lithographs of Hubbell paintings. Various sets representing events or periods in aviation history. Victoria and ALBERT Museum, South Kensington, London, England: January 1959 issue of Journal of the Royal Society of Arts. Weaver, Capt. T. C., Fairborn, Ohio: A collection of photographs of racing aircraft. ACCESSIONS Additions to the National aeronautical collections received and re- corded during the fiscal year 1959 totaled 341 specimens in 56 separate accessions from 38 sources. Those from Government departments are entered as transfers; others were received as gifts except as noted. AiR Forcrk, DEPARTMENT OF THE, Washington, D.C.: The “Pioneer-I’” exhibit consisting of a scale model of a Douglas Thor ballistic missile and related electrical and mechanical display units, illustrating the first attempts made in August and October 1958 to place a man-made object in an orbit around the moon. Although not successful, useful information was obtained about the radiation belt surrounding the earth. (NAM 1023.) The ‘“Data-Sphere,” an instrumented capsule containing a tape recorder and other apparatus for receiving and preserving data during the launching, climb, and descent of a Thor ballistic missile. This one is the first of the series to be recovered. (NAM 1043.) Arm Forct Museum, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: A German Nagler-Rolz helicopter, type NR-54 V2. An early example of a one-man helicopter, it was developed during World War II. On each of its two rotor blades an 8-hp. Argus engine with a 23-inch wooden propeller is mounted, about midway, to revolve the rotor. (NAM 1019.) ! S22: sees 1 Macaca philippensis X M. trus--.----- Ey brid macaque=s 25 == Ss ee 1 Macaca syloanis 3. 2<<--2 2) = 13- Barbary ADC. oo ero. ts ee 3 Meriones unguiculatus_-.------------ Mongolian (gerbils ses. 22 oae 6 Nasvainariea 2024-264 eet ee eee Coatimundins set i eee eee 3 Odocotleus wirginanusios. Bose =a Virginia ‘deere. eek ws ae 5 Pachyuromys duprast.o =. 225 222 22=-- Rat=tailediperbils «2a! fo 2222 16 Paneatyrus. a2 bee 2 ee eee Chimpanzees e242 es a 1 Paniheraleo 28 #2 2k eee 2 Fee Tai @ rips nt ol po She yt ce ta ee 4 ANGU CR MAERTIUS ioe oe Ue = See Reindeers. = -sxetes2" 2 eee of IS QUNULESCLUNCUS = mee ae eee SOMITE lemon ke yee eee 1 Thalarctos maritimus X Ursus midden- Hybrid bear (2d generation) - ---- 3 dor ffi. Unsusvhornibrlts= See x 2 a es cee ak Grizzly bear sas Jee Sue a oe 3 Vaclnes jtctpa ere ere pk 2 Redox. = 25 Ae eae eee 4 BIRDS AR SpOIS Ot SN Ee ee ane 5 Woodiducks. 22240. es eee 22 Anas platyrhynchds= <= =e =~ —— Moallardiduck. Soe) =. sere 4 CRI SOlODNUS DICHES sa ee Golden’ phessant-— 22-2 o--2--22— 1 Colamoa vid et eee eae Homing pigeon.22+ 1225 282_ 222 1 CYGNUS CYGNUS see oe se See bo eee se Whooperswanl. 225 722 sre" 2s 4 2 SECRETARY’S REPORT Way’ Scientific name Common name Number Dendrocygna autumnalis__----------- Black-bellied tree duck____-__-__- 3 Dendronessa galericulata_.----------- Mandarinyvducke ss so. Seo 3 GOUAS OGIee eae Sea ae ee Red junglefowls 22.22.2522. 5 Gennaeus lewcomelanus_--_----------- Nepalipheasants =< 223-2528 3 Mi USECOMEN CATS = eae Nel preullt 2.4 se ee ee ee 2 Meleaorie qallopavoce=—= = =e oe nn Wildsturkey ii. 222.4 2 eee me 10 Welopsiiacus undulaiuss---2-- Grassparakeets 222s. Cee 6 Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli__-------- Black-crowned night heron_-_-___- 8 ROM ONCT IS LAL UB oF = os PI ars ne BeRtOWIAS 92 Seca Soon eo SR Ne 9 REPTILES Anctstrodonwmonkeson. <=22- 322 = === 5 - Copperhead? 2... 4. i aegis ot Chelydra senpentina= 2 ea = a phapping turtle..2_ Ji ae qsiae ss 18 Chiysemiusiprciameeeen. see a2 ee Painted: turtles2¢32_._- ase 4 Clemmrsansculpig seas Ses ee Woodsturtles 2... Se Bae 2 (Cn OLAIS OAT ODS Sates an 5 tem ae ye yet ats Western diamond-backed rattle- 10 snake. EIGCRNIGMON eta e = eee Bak Seige ey White's: skink#. <4... 2 Uae ew ethene el! Mandrillatssphincas 9a arse eaene 1 Geladatbsaboons 2-6 =2as- 66) 22 ee he Theropithecus gelada____-----__- 1 Wervet cucnon. oases == Selene Cercopithecus aethiops____--_--_- af Green; cuenon’ © 220 ewe sata int cat Cercopithecus aethiops. ____-__-__- 2 Guenon why brid Ss = ae san See Cercopithecus aethiops xX C. a. 2 pygerythrus. Moustached monkey_.----_-------- Cercopithecus cephus_ 22 = 122222 2 Diana monkey= =. 2. 5 2 Soe Cercopithecus diana____--------- 1 Rolowayumonkey=s- )— = see oe Cercopithecus dvana==- 2) eae 1 IPreuUssizs CUeNON =< ewe Lae ae esd Cercopithecus V hoestt___________- 1 DeBrazza’s guenons.55 2222 S2e5- Cercopithecus neglectus__________- 2 White-nosed guenon----_-_-____-_- Cercopithecus nictitans__________- 1 Lesser white-nosed guenon________- Cercopithecus nictitans__________- 1 Allen’s:monkey -riste s ssect Hylobates agilis X H. lar_______- 1 Gibbons ny bride 4.2220 = Se (Aylobates'lar Xx Hs spo) eee) 3 Sumatran orangutan___-_________- Pangea py gmacises: catiet ae Ad 2 Bornean orangutan--___-______- = (Pongo pygmacuses =n! = a Seer 1 Chimpanzees< =<... 24h ee ree, ae Ran saline see ae oe ne hi pee 4 Gorilla ce aie uct eke ele eer at Gorillangor. ae =e ees 2 EDENTATA Myrmecophagidae: Giantpantester=.. 2252226228252 — Myrmecophaga tridactyla_____-_-- 1 Bradypodidae: ‘wo-toedisloghe soa 2. 2 Choloepus didactylus.--..--_---- 5 LAGOMORPHA Leporidae: Domestic rabbits2 322.2. Seve - Oryctolagus cuniculus___--------- 2 160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 RODENTIA Family and common name Scientific name Number Sciuridae: Gray squirrel (black)S.2_22 _- --22 Sciurus carolinensis, melanistic 1 phase. Crayssquirrell)(albino) 2=sa42— sane Seturus carolinensis. 22252222228 2 Hox squirrel. = = 2 2. See anh wntiny 3 SCUTUS Niger. = Seo eee 1 Giant Indian squirrel_______--__-_- Ratujawndica- = Sea sne haeee 4 Asiatic squirrel= 22. nee sane Callosciurus nigrovittatus___-_---- 1 Formosan tree squirrel. _-_--------- Callosciurus erythraeus___------- 5 Asiatic forest squirrel__.---------- Callosciurus caniceps_----------- 4 Striped ground squirrel_._____-_-_-_- Lariscus insignis... 222-522-252 2 Long-nosed squirrel._=..-.-------- Dremomys rufigenis_-.__--------- il Woodchuck, or groundhog_--_------ Marmota monaps 22s ee il Prairie-doe.. 2 22sec het eee eee Cynomys ludovicianus - _------- Many White-tailed squirrel_-_.___-_.---- Citellarsmleuciuns== =e 2 Hasternchipm ym kes == =a RGMLASTS UT TOL (Se 1 Eastern chipmunk, albino. __._-_-_-- Tamiasisiniatis. =. _ eases ees 1 Red-and-white flying squirrel] _ _ _ -_- Petauwristalalbirujuss eee 1 Formosan flying squirrel__________-_ PeLGunustOngiOnd.s =a 1 Eastern flying squirrel. s-.++.2+22-+ Glaucomyswolans. = =_ 2-25 252e8 15 Cricetidae: Vesperirats.. eee eb sais aes Nyctomys sumichrastt__—-------- 2 Mamster_ +. = Bes oe ee RE Mesocnicetus auratus. 222s es = 3 Lesser Egyptian gerbil_____------- Gerbillws gerxbilluss === eee eee if! Rat-talledsserbile=—- = 4 See eee POChyuUnoniys Cu pnast = 19 iMainy=vatled ind sae ase ee Sekeetamys calurus__-._---------- 1 Fire SSL BS ert ty mapa het eer Mertones spissae2s=2 285k ee 8 Muridae: Egyptian spiny mouse______-------- ‘ACOmys CORMMNUBS. == see eee 24 Egyptian spiny mouse__-_--------- Acomys dimidiatuss2ee2o~ 22222 Many Slender-tailed cloud rat_____------- Phlocomys cumingu 22s. 2 3 Gliridae: African dormouses=22 ess oa5ee. 3 Graphiurus murinus_....-==----- 1 Dipodidae: Lesser or desert jerboa_-_---------- Jaculus jaculuso2. 225-005 25- eee 1 Hour-toed)jerboa- = =as2 se atelier Allactaga tetradactyla__---------- 6 Hystricidae: Malay porcupine=" 2245243 saseeas = Acanthion brachyura_----------- 1 African porcupine. -— 434254555 aeee lnstriigaledigaene ee ee ee 4 Erethizontidae: Prehensile-tailed porcupine - -_ ___-_- Coendou prehensilis__----------- 1 Caviidae: Guimea-pie. 22 Se Cavia porcellus 52-2 = = See ee 30 Hydrochoeridae: Capy bards. 02" 2-22" ne aoe ar ee Hydrochoerus hydrochoeris-_------- 2 Dinomyidae: COMAR OU so. ee Ue ae eee ee Dinomys branickit= 2-2 = = 2 Dasyproctidae: SAC ZO) DAS ape Os ie hp Ee ay Dasyprocta prymnolopha--------- 1 Speckled acquis. —-= ee - = we eeS Dasyprocta punctata.--.--------- 1 Chinchillidae: Peruvian wiscactias{=22 52-222 5.222 Lagidium viscaccia__------------ 1 Chinchilla:+ 2.2 et Sees ae ee Chinchilla chinchilla_....-------- 2 SECRETARY’S REPORT 161 Family and common name Scientific name Number Capromyidae: Coypuss sass oss Sa ee ee aeee Myocastor coupusss22== oss sees 1 CARNIVORA Canidae: Ding Obese 22 a2 === =e aen re mle Cantsiantarcticugs] SOuee) I 4 Mimberwole ==> ssse 5 Use a SeabreN Canisilupuss=+ = 222525525250 2 Texasired wolf es «oie. Cer Canis'niger2= seat PBs ATER 2 Redox se oh 222 oS EE Pee Vulpes fulvges 2h nt nn EIS 2 Piatinwmei foxes sewed yas ae eee Vanes jules) = = een ie De 2 Hennecsseeeee eee ese Be eas ee EOD RIBUS TORU oo se 2 GrayeiOxe Mae wn eee. BAe eS Urocyon cinereoargenteus_—_____- 1 IRACCOOM*CORSs a5 5 2 aes ys ee Foes Nyctereutes procyonotdes_________ 1 Capessuntingdopes22es2 ee lass TCAOT PICs ana = 22 ee 4 BiP-caArecdHOxe = 2 sas een = ee ee Otocyon megalotis== 22a se 3 Ursidae: Spectacledsbear- === sno en eee os Tremarctos ornatus.==-2222-52 2. - 1 Eimalayanibears= ===. 52= see ==— Selenarctos thibetanus___._______~ 2 Japanese’ black bears. 22 2220s) Selenarctos thibetanus__-__----_-- | Woreannbear= == ee wane ean ae Selenarctos thibetanus___________- 2 Black bearsis= ass 24a ae ea et ERLONCLOSN MCT ICANUS == =e 2 Alaskan brown bear__.--.-._.=---- Wreustsp ss ese Pasa. ee 1 Huropean brown bear=— == 2-__=—- Ursustarctose 2252228222 -5=223! 3 Iranian brown bears. - 22/2 2s 22 Osis ai closme Pet es aos = oe 2 Alaskan Peninsula bear___________- Ursusigyaset a= Bae ee ks 2 Grizzlyabear. > ose 88 2 SNe Ue Ursus horribilisese= 2 a= ===) see 3 SitkaebTownrebears == =2 522s ae ee ee Wrsusstikensis 2 = 22224 Ouse 2 (BolaTrsbe ares se ee = len ek SO ES Thalanctos*manitimus= ss 2 Bear why bride ain eek ee ee ee Thalarctos marittmus X Ursus 6 middendor fii. Malayasimepeares as] ae eee Helarctos malayanus= == 2 3 Procyonidae: IAC COON See aes 2 ae eee ee PrOCUONUOLOTY Sa ee aa ea ee 4 FeGecOs GLU Gi eee NES CECRTUCLS 10 0 eee a em apa ae 2 Cosgtimundis: “<2 ase= ses e tes INGSUiG NariCas Se] ee eee 14 Kankaj oul saa eee es SU Potos flavus S29 5222 234525 f Olingoee es 42 ae ee PTI ee Bassarteyon gavli-2-=- = 82 ae eae 2 IeRSCr PANG hoes a5! = oS Se ove ree ZATIIPAES LG ENS mae = aa ee 3 Mustelidae: Short-tailediweaselas === === =a Moarstelaermined == tye ee 1 asbermuwesseles 22-225! =2 =.=. a0 Mastelas\renata== == 52 == 255 = il Perret walbino 292222" k) = i427 52= WViGiStelancuensi anny 1 Mig, Geri ae es ees eee eer ry tyes Se Maries aimentcant=—— = aes === 1 Bighor eerste oe ee een eee ee ee Maries! penntuniine = se een 1 Rayrate see seco eee! eae ee Tar ar0ar0argea se 2 sien eee 1 (Grison se een a) Oe: Sees ak ee Galiciistyitiatane ee se ee eee 1 NVOlVenlnee © sain tte a eh ree a) Sees Gilotluscus soe) De aa 1 Americang ba Go era = ese een meses PEROT GEIS ee 1 Golden-bellied badger_____________ Flelictismoschatd= aes eae 2 Commons hunk <== 5-5 5285 eee Mepis mephitis_— = 54 ee © se 3 California spotted skunk__________ SPHOGale QTaCIIS=- == == eiaen Ae 1 African small-clawed otter________- JMR GUARD sac os oe 1 South American flat-tailed otter____ Pteronura brasiliensis_________-- 1 Malayan small-clawed otter________ AT OLONUTACUNER CAs ae ne eae 1 162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Family and common name Scientific name Viverridae: Genete se 222 Sine Serer se asa Genetta genelia.- ===. === ee Formosan spotted civet----------- Wavennicula angicdes == == eee Ground civietes cee pan ase nae soe Viverra tangalunga_______-_____- Wiansear gee 8 ea tos on age eh ae ETTONOCOn UINSaNg=r== =e Formosan masked civet_--___--_--_- IAG WONG ae a es Bintunong esas eee ee Arclicits OLNtUTOng._ = =) sae African gray mongoose----_-_--__--_- Herpestes tchnewmon________-__-- Winter clvietss-_2225- (sate ees ATH Oc: DOLUAITOSUS == eee White-tailed civet-— > ==! 2--62 Ichneumia albicauda___________- Cryptoproctidae: POSS sie = te kee Orca hehe Pal Cryptoprocta ero = =) 2 ee Hyaenidae: Spotted Nvends— == 0 =) ee Bae Crocutatcrocittan =. p= see SERIpe@uMVena = © oo ashy et eyes HU Genahyaena. == = ee Felidae: Sioa Cerys: eae a eee ones FECIESCROUS = 2 cas = = ee PaaS SUGAR bere eye oe bee Ye reeteey be PE CTUS UTD =. 5 Seta ee are eae onvalicats. 22 ene Ree ae el DOULS' SCTUQL . 222. -scoce=-- Leptoptilos javanicus.----------- 1 SECRETARY’S REPORT Family and common name Scientific name Number Threskiornithidae: Glossynibis= <= sea a ae as Plegadis falcinelluso2 2 22 2 Hasternuclossyslpiss=see eee ase iegadis yf alcinellisaae = 2 Black-headediibis= =.= 2-5-2 -- = Threskiornis melanocephala_______ 1 Roseéate:spoonbilles4.2--- 25 See FAIGTOIOIOj Om eee eee ea SD 2 Wihitesibige 2 ao. 2 Ge be Endocimus alouses = Seige P, Searletribist=-=4 = 59s -ou sy eins Budocemus tubers = ae eee 2 ANSERIFORMES Anhimidae: Crestedisereamer: - 3-2-2262 = 22 Chauna torquata- 2.2...) 4 Anatidae: IMUteISWaAne ts) a=" eee oe ee ee ae Cygnusvolonee se se ooo 2 \Wihooper swansea se see eee Olor ey qnusses ec 2 SENN 2 Wihistlineiswans=~s=" Sears! ear se Glor:columbianiet Loe = 2 Oe eee 4 irumipeter-swane==o 5204. ee Olomiuccinator= soa e ed 2 Caper Barren gooses = / 22222 == 2eers Cereopsis novaehollandiae______ ~~ 1 Australian pied goose. ----------_- Anseranas semipalmata________-_- 1 Blackiswanlss SSA aoe es Ye8 Chenopistainata=== ee 3 Blueigoosess he St eee tee Sareea tae Chen caerulescens. -* 22.) OIE 6 Lesser snow goose_.._.----------- Chenihyperborea ei 2 Greater snow goose_--=+)--.-_.-~- Cheniatlanitcas 22 oe ee ee 6 RORSIS) COO SOSS = = < Seen ON Sept Se ee Chenirossigesi ss So 4 Indian bar-headed goose___-_------ Bulabera-ndveas2- ot a ae ee 5 White-fronted goose____._-------- Anser:albijronssess2csss2 2 ee2 BS 3 Hmiperorgoosesas saath eee eee eee IPiilacte canagicg= =a eee 2 Canadaycoosess =e FU te Seas LASSE aE BOWIE BRONtgCOnGGensis =a eee 34 @ackliness 0OSe eae ee ee White-cheeked goose__.-__------- Uplandesoosess sso 2 oes fae aees es Chloephaga leucoptera_..-------- 1 Canada goose X Blue goose, hybrid. Branta canadensis X Chen caeru- 2 lescens. Black-bellied tree duck__---------- Dendrocygna autumnalis_-------- 8 INUIT KOWIS) Tee) Choe Denanocygnanolcol ora = 2 Comb duick@s 22. 2 222422) Ses Sarkidiornis melanota_---------- 1 Huropeanishelliduceke= "== == 2-22 Padornadadenna.- 225-220 ee 1 Matlardeduckvalbino= a2 22-25 so Anas platyrhynchos_.----------- 1 Winilardtduck= "2 S22 25522 Sa22—= Anas platyrhynchos___---------- 26 Mallard duck X American pintail Anas platyrhynchos X Anas acuta il duck, hybrid. Indian spotted-bill duck.--__------- Anas poecilorhyncha_..---------- if Blackiducks sas2 3252527 e ee yee es AN GSinLon Desa eee 2 iBinbaltduck=s2s=2 ee eee ack ee ANGSACULG= sass e eee ee 1 BANC a ieee oe ae i ee rae Mareccaamericana== 5-2 13 WiOOdTdUCK= 25 222 = nie eean stan e ALL SDONS Cae e a ee eat ee 34 Wood duck X Red-headed duck, Aix sponsa XK Aythya americana- 1 hybrid. Misi Gari keane een Dendronessa galericulata__------- 29 Rosy-billed pochard=! 222222 2224 Metopiana peposaca._.._-------- i Red-crested pochard__-__-----_--- Netia rufina ea sn= -2SeseI aes 1 Canvasbackuduck=_— sn - ee ete Aythya valisineria_....--------- 9 Red-headed'duck==- 222208) Sie Aythya americana___--_---------- it 166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Family and common name Scientific name Number Anatidae—Continued Greater scaupiduck 4. 2.74. 22) 22a Agythya maria. 22) 2 =e aos 10 Lesser’ seaup duck .242-¢c-)5 245--261 Arthyqiaquis. =. a3 see tae fe FALCONIFORMES Cathartidae: Andeanicondor 2. -2 pa. 523 35 3t 8 Vadiurionyphisse.- oe" = see ee 1 Hing vulture so. 2 Sa eo ees Sarcoramphus papa_------------ 1 Biackwulturet.2 22.5424) 2. = eee Coraguyps GU lus 22-22 eee 1 AUPKeY VinlbUres 32526 See eee Cathartes iqura. 22 2 2. 2 eee 1 Sagittariidae: DECTOLArY DITG! =o 42 aa, ee a Sagittarius serpentarius_--------- 2 Accipitridae: Cayenne: kites.) = 2) 28s eee ee Odontriorchis palliatus_____------ 1 African yellow-billed kite_____---_- INMMGDUS WUC ONS a se soe eeccesece 2 layeMobeaoNys Ihe Bee ee ees EQIOSt ins 1 Buzzard espiess = a5 So te cL Buteo poecilochrous__.-- 1 Red-tailed hawk 26 i. a6 tose uleO JOMALCET SI Se he es 5 DSWalnson’s hawk. = = othe A ee Buteo Swatnsonye aos 2 1 iBlack-facedihawk=-=45— 22 5=—— ae Leucopternis melanops-_---------- 1 Guianan crested eagle.______._--_- Morphnus guianensis___--------- 1 Earp y iene] @ a9 ape 5 nee an ptG ROG DY Gs ae 1 Golden'.eaglen = <2. oo) pe ee Alqualachrysaetos= ==. 3 1 Monkey-eating eagle__-__-.-_----- Pithecophaga jefferyi_----------- 1 Baldveagle: 25.2.2 2- 450 A Ree eee 6 Haliaeetus leucocephalus___------ 7 Ruppells:vultre. 3.422.325 ae Guns rueppelltt_ =... 5 eee 2 White-backed vulture__-___.__-___- IPseudogyps Gfricanusa= === 1 Rateleurieacles 25s ee Terathopius ecaudatus_...--.---- 3 Falconidae: Horestualcon: 23265: 22s Sees Micrastur semitorquatus --------- 2 (OUiybae Ys Saytdo eeaeeeae Sc) see ee OS See eT oe Milvago chimango.22--------- = 2 South American caracara______---- Polyborus plancus-.-..--..--=.-< 3 Avrdubon’sicaracaras2.22 262-5 .2 iPoluborusichertwayes.- 22 os 1 Sparrow hawkte 321628 34a t st Falco sparverius.._.<- 3-2 -4=-+-_— 6 GALLIFORMES Megapodiidae: Brush! turkeys) 5232. 5 teen eee Alectura \lathami.. = --~- 9-343 1 Cracidae: INocturnall curassowe.--2- 5-5 Nothocraz urumutum__---------- 1 White-headed piping guan________- Papile cumanensts == 1 Blue-cered curassow.._...-...----- Crax albertys 222 Ape wink wi ee 2 Wattledicurassow=2 5226.44 toga Crasxglobulos@=ss #3 oe ee 2 iPanama curassow=-o- 2. 2233s Crac PanNamensts=—-2 2 1 Phasianidae: Hrekelss francolinel 224 | Sets Francolinus erckelt_...--=.~=-=-- 5 Hildebrandt’s francolin_________--_- Francolinus hildebrandti_ _------- 1 IBabwiitene scien 2 an 4 ores aes wate Colinus virginianus= 22-2 =-=2 5-5 1 ifungarian partridge._o. 2-222. 72 Perdiz perdix__--_-- er ee ee ee 2 Japanese (quail === ss =e ee ae Coturniz coturniz_.._..-=-=----- it iINepalipheasant. 2-22 2.2) eee Gennaeus leucomelanus_--------- 2 Swinhoe’s pheasant______-_______- Gennaeus swinhoti___.---------- 1 Red itnglefow! = 322223 oo ee Gallus gallus) 2225208 2S 9 SECRETARY’S REPORT 167 Family and common name Scientific name Number Phasianidae—Continued Ring-necked pheasant___...-----_- Phasianusicotchicussse Cate 4 Ring-necked pheasant, albino__-_-__- Phasvanius colchicuss 2255 eee 1 Reevesis. pheasant. ..s-vstee ah sae S Syrmaticus. reevesvasest= Lupe play athe 2 Lady Amherst pheasant_-..____-_- Chrysolophus amherstiae_---_--_-- 1 Golden pheasanti onan: aslea ate Chrysolophus pictusso22 2222s. 5 Peafowlese4 22. Aipeeyen ashy ee” TZOUOXCHUSLOLILS sen 13 Arpus pheasants ser pyenireylh ae ed wee! Argusianusiangus....- seh be 2 Numididae: Vulturine guineafowl________-____- Acryllium vulturinum___—------- 5 Meleagrididae: Ocellatediturkey2= ==. 25 22 Agriochars ocellata.—- = = 52_-- 1 Waldturkey 2.2: 2.2.4. t-2 eeetas Meleagris gallopavo=—. -== = - = 11 Gruidae: pibeman crane. =... -erstiaw satenh Gris leweogeranus.._— eee 1 Demoiselle crane. - 24++ 22-22 2222-- Anthnopotdesitirgo= =. seat & 1 Psophiidae: Trumpeter. <.-.-+.--.. sie sted Psophia crepitans.__._ see ath Z Rallidae: WVarginiaprail....-_ 4 Avestan got eA Lallus lamicolasstoss beaten s sees 1 Black-and-white crake____________ Laterallus leucopyrrhus_-—.------- 1 South Pacific swamphen___--_--_--_-- Borphyrio poliocephalus______--_- 1 American coot . ...--tewthss! satntn h Pulica american@iedens 252352052 1 EKurypygidae: Sunsbitterme — 2. =. epee nh Buropygaheltassacse sai fe see 2 Cariamidae: Cariamaorseriama.___._._ ssse0r 52h Cartama entsiaia s228-= % past 1 CHARADRIIFORMES Jacanidae: Common jaganate= ieee sence Jacana spinosa joes ee Fee ee 3 Haematopodidae: Oystercatchers 24 2 -S=Shnl meen -eh Haematopus ostralegus_-_--------- 2 Stercorariidae: MacCormack’s skuaa 92 Albee e Catharacta maccormackt_____-- ~~~ 4 Charadriidae: Australian banded plover__-_-_--_-_- Zonifer 7tcoloy a ey 6 South American lapwing__-________ Belonopterus cayennensis_________ 1 Kalideer= 3 | = oc bagthye hs See Charadrius vociferus....------~--- 1 Recurvirostridae: Black-necked stilt__.-___----_--__- Himantopus mexicanus - --------- 1 Burhinidae: South American thick-knee________ TSUSNIUS ULSITTOL IS ee = ee 1 Laridae: Lavage) ovblieyel eqbUb oe Larus delawarensis____=...-122- Dy, Kelp: oul. = 2 2 enn qeaeyoyll Larus dominicanusen-) 22 3524. 23: 2 Lavghine onl @ Ue eauetn eke USGTUSTOUGLCH Ge a a eee 1 Silver full” Say ieee) sels eet ite Larus novaehollandiae___-_------ 12 COLUMBIFORMES Columbidae: Homing pireon.t 232 oso e on Columba:lrig sai = i222 2 1 Band-tailed pigeon______-_-_-_-_-- Columba fasciata-2--- == oe 2 2 536608—60 12 168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Family and common name Scientific name Number Columbidae—Continued Black-billed pigeonuis [252 52 ASs2225 Columba nigrinostnisea see Mourning doves 2222.0) suspen: Zenaidura macroura__----------- White-winged dove_________------ Zenaida, astaiica_- nee ee Ring-necked. doves eer sales ae Streptopelia decaocto_.-.__-__-_-_- Blue-headed ring dove__---------- Streptopelia tranquebarica_______- Diamond dove 22335 we ee Geopelia cuncata 5. 35225 es Groundidoveiss2 > Ss ee Columbigallina passerina________- Plain-breasted ground dove______-- Columbigallina minuta__________- Bleeding-heart dove__...._..------ Gallicolumba luzonica..-___-~-_- Crowned pigeon: 22 55-22-2— 22-2 Goura‘victoria_.- =... - ae PSITTACIFORMES Psittacidae: Kear pairot: a sooo Ss Sires Nestor: notailis.2- 25.2225 ae Rediorysa5 se Baw Domicella garrula__ 2202_ ee Banksian coekatoon. 2525222 2825 2. Calyptorhynchus magnificus - — —__- White :cockatoolaa S62 ieais ene Kakatoe ala. .2225525.255 ee Solomon Islands cockatoo--_---_---- Kakatoe ducrops=—- =. = sae Sulphur-crested cockatoo-__-------- Kakatoe galeriutas—=-_ ~~ -e2 see Bare-eyed) cockatoonss=2-- 22-22 -= iKakatoesanguincds 2a Great red-crested cockatoo_____---- iKakatoemmoliuccenstse eae Leadbeater’s cockatoo__.--_------- Kakatoc lead beatentas a= a ae Cockaticlere so. seo ene ee ee Nymphicus hollandicus__-_-_------ Yellow-and-blue macaw - ---------- INGE, GROOM eee Red-and-blue macaw__-_---------- FAROKCHLONODCCTO === ee Red-blue-and-yellow macaw _------ ATOM ECEO == teers ee ee Retzisiparakeetss- a ee eee VAT OUT GICONICULGT Se en =s ee Rusty-cheeked parrot__----------- Aratnga pertinar=——— === White-winged parakeet__---------- Brotogeris versicolurus_---------- Yellow-napedtparrot=2222s2=S ss Amazona auropalliata___-------- Binschs| parrots. +=" 220-225. = 4-s Amazona finschy_. == sss Red-fronted! parrot == LATHE ZONG UOC tT ae a Double yellow-headed parrot_-_-_---- AINA ZONG OT OUI === Red-shouldered parakeet _-_-------- Psitiaculavcupaintas=2 = aa Moustacked parakeet___---------- FPSTLOCUIOGSCLALG = = ae Barraband’s parakeet___---------- Politelisiswarnisoni sa ae ee Rosy-faced lovebird___------------ Agapornis roseicollis_______---_- Hischer/slovebind sats seeks AGG DOTNIS fiSCheit ss Masked Movebirdan = = esse eee == ae a= Agapornis personata_______------ Grass parakeet, or budgerigar------ Melopsittacus undulatus___---- CUCULIFORMES Musophagidae: Purple: turacos.222os Goes See PauracopersGaaae a ee a eee South African curacoussas sesso ROA; GCONC OR CLOtL a ae Plantain-eater. So.) Sein Said Crinifer ajricanus.___ 02 See White-bellied go-away-bird__-~_-_--- Corythaixoides lewcogaster__-~_-__- Cuculidae: oe: = aaa er Se eos Eudynamys scolopacea_-__-------- Roadrunners =k a eee Geococcyx californianus_--------- Ree eB EP We RE PRE NEF NNWWNRP OO NP eb NNN OPEN TE we aa se SECRETARY’S REPORT STRIGIFORMES Family and common name Scientific name Tytonidae: Barn owls... 22 Sava Seana he Pytovalba. ==. 2 tees BS Strigidae: Sereech owla.2.2-—.. Jat ES Opusiasios = see se ee a eae Greatyhorned owlts2 = 2-2] — eee Bubolvinginianus. 52222 2e= Colombian great horned owl---_---- Bubo virginianus_--------- mpectacied@ OWle oes se seo ee ee Pulsatrix perspicillata___--- Mialayzstis hun 220 vil asa ee ICHUDOUECULD I= ee SNOW YnOWlesce coe ee eae ee INI CLEO@EN)/ CLEC =a Barrediow)l ==: -cecees Cee ee SHO UG GaassoosoS- ssee SL COLIIFORMES Coliidae: Mousebinde= cencaeee ee eee Eee Colus sinaiuse == ee CORACIIFORMES Alcedinidae: Kookaburra... 2 abort soe ain as Daceloygi gases ee Momotidae: Motmots.-—_ = aes ee Beene Momotus lessoni_---------- Coraciidae: Lilac-breasted roller__..._--------- COT;OCLOSICOLAGLG= === Imdign roller o-a2- = See Se Coracias benghalensis__----- Bucerotidae: Grave nornbille oe sess oe oe Tockus birostris__--- ties iWreathed hormbilles weLensessaee Aceros plicaius=2- = aes iRiedenornbilles=22= a= eee se === Anthracoceros malabaricus Black-and-white casqued hornbill___ Bycanistes subcylindricus Black casqued hornbill____-_------ Ceratogymna atrata___----- EB Philippine hornbul 3 t see Buceros hydrocoraz_-_------- Abyssinian ground hornbill---_-_~-_-_- Bucorvus abyssinicus - __-~--- PICIFORMES Capitonidae: Asiaticvoreatibarbetes=s— == == == —=—= Megalaima virens___------- Asiatic red-fronted barbet--~----_-_-_- Megalaima astatica.—------ moucan. barbet. = <-2<22295---<-.5- Semnornis ramphastinus Ramphastidae: White-lined toucanet____.________-- Aulacorhynchus albivitiatus White-breasted toucan_-__-_------- Ramphastos culminatus Sulphur-breasted toucan__-____----- Ramphastos carinatus__-_---- Swainson’s toucan==s- .---.sa...25 Ramphastos swatnsont__-_---- oOCcOMOUCAN eH etek Kamphastositocos222 52. = = Picidae: Scaly-bellied woodpecker --_-__----_- UCUSESUCMOLUS See =a Golden-backed woodpecker - -__---- Brachypternus benghalensis PASSERIFORMES Cotingidae: Naked-throated bellbird______----- Chasmorhynchus nudicollis Orange cock-of-the-rock_________-- Rupicola rupicola__.------- Scarlet cock-of-the-rock________--- Rupicola sanguinolenta 169 Number 170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Family and common name Scientific name Number Pipridae: Long-tailed manakin____-_____-_-~-_- Chiroriphia linearts____-----__-- 2 Tyrannidae: Kiskadee flycatcher-_-_-_----------- Pitangus sulphuratus____-__-___- 1 Pittidae: Indisnspittac ss .ets 5-2 Be EE Pitta brachyurasn. 222. rs Aaa 2 Alaudidae: Skylatkh 24 25 aes nat Alaudararvensieeens® Js222 Heise 1 Corvidae: Stellen/suiaya. chet] 5 led pepeha Cyanocitta stellert__ to. e=kioh wat 4 Marpic. seco... eee iY Rica. MCG a. eee ii Yellow-billed magpie___----------- Pica nuttallt..- = ee ee 1 EiMibin e4CrOwe see oe Seth ace KGttGaChinens1s a ee 1 Formosan red-billed pie___________ Kite cacruleasa=_ 2. =) eee 9 INSiatieNbRee Pleas 2 a2 Crypsining formosac_____-___= = 2 IRA Ven. aesec cee ee Corpus (corags 2... -2—- . 5 Fetdaees 1 African white-neck crow______----- Conustalbuse aus aoe 2 Cro west eeee 2a tes eee Corvus brachyrhynchos____--___-- 2 tnidianicro w= Sees Se oe Corsus insolens=_—-.-_ > _ eee 2 Inca jayaeevet ..a2e5sn ssa’ Manthounayncas_-. _ sass 2 Cracticidae: White-backed piping crow-_-__--___- Gymnorhina hypoleuca______-___- 1 Paridae: Greattite ic. ao Se Sse Parus, majors.~seties lteeard S: 1 Graystitzd 2a. See hehe sp ianee Parussmajons os. eee o Red=headedstit sso. 52..6.22s2255- Aegithaliscus concinnus______-__- 2 Ptilonorhynchidae: SaAtimuboOwerbind so. —-— ee eee Ptilonorhunchus violaceus _. _ ~~~ 2 Timaliidae: Titibabbler. 22 esn sees ee ga Yuhina flamcollisase s34b2 = = ee 3 Indian scimitar babbler___-__--_--- Pomatorhinus horsfieldit____- ~~~ - 1 Rusty-cheeked scimitar babbler____ Pomatorhinus erythrogenys_------ 1 Black-headed sibia____------------ Heterophasia capistrata__-------- 3 Sittidae: Chestnut-bellied nuthatch ___.----_- Nita(easiancas= 5.) 4 eee 4 Pycnonotidae: Red=vented bulbul=.- ~~ ==_--==" == Pyenonotusicajer= +) - 2" aoe 1 White-cheeked bulbul_--_-_------- Pycnonotus leucogenys_---------- 2 Brown-eared bulbul___------------ Mol pastesileucosiis2 = = ee 5 Turdidae: Bonaparte’s chtushs-ss— = Rurdusigraytzsst ie SUE ee u iRobineealbinOe === s=—=— =a LGD TOG ROOD AS = ae 1 (Chitichatt 2222 eee se eee Thamnolaeca cinnamomeiventris___ 2 Silver-eared mesia-_--------------- Mestartargentauris=22 4 Muscicapidae: Weritermycateherss= 92 -- === = Muscicapea thalassina____-------- 3 Sturnidae: Junslemynalaco ase. See Acridotheres\irvatig 2 ne 1 Burchell’s glossy starling____------_ Lamprocolius purpureus_-------- 3 fri-colored. starling..._ 22-2222" 52 SPREO Supervuseaecn. 2225 25 2a 1 Long-tailed glossy starling--------- Lamprotornis caudatus__-_------- 1 Gray-headed mynah_-_------------ Sturnus malabaricus__--_-------- 1 Starlings 222 ass cae os = eee esse SEUTI U8 UULGGR Sa ee ee 1 SECRETARY’S REPORT 7a Family and common name Scientific name Number Sturnidae—Continued Rose-colored’ pastor .24=-4esaoe IPGSLOT TOSCU SOUR te ISP hs 1 Iessershillimynah= ee Graculareligiosan 4— oo 8 te 2 Greater billtmynah 82-22 te Graculareh gists. 3 Parulidae: Ovenbird&. 22704. 2 ph ae a teehS Seturus aurocapillus_.._._.-_.--_--- 1 Ploceidae: IB ORA KET Ne te ee ee ieloceust0ay as see ee ee 5 Vitelline masked weaver___-------- Ricceustvitellimuse oe 3 Redvbishop weaver=._—---. ==... Bruplectesomae $552 21252 ae 2 Yellow-crowned bishop weaver__-_--- USODLCCLCS HOPG Oe See 2 oe 4 Giantuwhydah. 222s sc eros Diatropuraprocne _-.-=_ = _- 2 Miahtaltiweavernoa2- 22.2552 5555 Plecetpasser mahaly_ -.---_ == == 1 NYE) Cel oy SA OT eo eee Paldaxoryzivorad< 2) =2535R0NG 14 Cut-throat weaver finch__________- Amadinafasciatas. = 9u hom nae 2 White-headed nunii = L222 2222 2. Lonchura-maja ion. piensa 7 Havender fin che 222 eens Wyn ores: Estrilda coerulescens__..-_-_____- 2 Red-eared -waxbill-sos02 Soames. Estrilde-astrild 2 yeas eee 1 Commontwaxbill.--¥ 198 2xyo00. Estrilda troglodytes__.___.._---__. 2 Strawberry finches eee Ses Estrilda amandava__-_---------~- 8 Zebrarine hee. —-~ = erases Miso! Poephila castanotis. 2228 h See 20 Gouldian+finch=—... 248 O68 wos. Poephila gouldiae-.2.<<. 2... 58 1 Nectariniidae: Variablersunbind == 9a Cinnyrasvenustisese == = 2 Beautinilisunbirdeasss5= 42-5222 5— Nectarinia pulchella....._....._- 2 Scarlet-chested sunbird____--_-_--- Chaleomitra rubescens____-__----- Z Golden-winged sunbird_____------- Drepanorhynchus reichenowii____- 2 Zosteropidae: IWIN GO-Gy.Cleet ty OR SN ae Zosterops palpebrosa__.--.__-_=_-___ 3 Coerebidae: Blue honeycreeper---------------- Cyanenpesecyaneus_——— =~ =o 2 Icteridae: Race oracles se.) poe ok oe ees Psomocolax oryzivora_------------ 1 Boat-tailed grackle___-_......---- Caxsidin mericanuses=2 5 DSwainson’s:prackle-._..- 22. 222.5 Holoquiscalus lugubris___--------- 2 DSHIMVyNCOW DING 22. 2223 ee ae Se Molothrus bonariensis_____---_--- 4 Red-breasted marshbird_-_-_---___-- DCS CSENVNLan Srna ee 4 Colombian red-eyed cowbird_-__--__- Pangavwissarmenti. <= - - = a= 1 Pn pl ever aC kles — sn ee Oitsenlus quisculagq— == = ea = 1 Ginsudpvoriole= = a2 e = = ee CLE RAS OUOLG ayn 1 aiCOUpialw eee =F eae os ROLE USI CLORUS a et ee 1 Yellow-headed marshbird_________- Agelaius icterocephalus___.------- 1 Thraupidae: Crimgonttanagenes = 2 a os Ramphocelus dimidiatus_-_-------- if Yellow-rumped tanager__________-_- Ramphocelus icteronotus _-__-_------ 3 IPASSEnINI SrbANAP CTs. oc. e Be Ramphocelus passerinii_____------ 1 Black-and-white tanager_______-_-_~ CTBSODTS 1CUCT TAI Emer ye 2 Fringillidae: Buit-throated saltator__......-_._- RS EELE CLO Te AIDA IT OS eee ee eee 1 Black-throated cardinal__________- POnOATIGRGULOUS es aa a 3 Brazilianjcardinal. 22.2 oo Paroaria cucuilata. ~~ = 1 WDICKCIssel ee = = ee ie Na SPUZG QMeTsCande ss. 7 Evening grosbeak2..-2 2-2-2... Hesperiphona vespertina____---_-_- 2 172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Family and common name Scientific name Number Fringillidae—Continued Tawny-bellied seedeater_______-_-- SPorophilayminutene ae ee 5 European goldfinch X Canary, hy- Carduelis carduelis X Serinus ca- 1 brid. narius. SONG Sparrows See Se ee Melospyza melodia_---=__-- 2 see 1 Black-throated cardinal_______-__- Paroaria gularis=-2=--<2.=-00 1 Mielodioustsrassquii== === ee TVATIS CONOTG2 25 255-2225 .5 ose 6 ce erOsbea k= - 252s eee ee see ee Oryzoborus crassirostris.._.------- 1 hessersyellowatinch===s= == === === === SCCALUSNI LLCO! Cnn ns ae 3 REPTILES LORICATA Crocodylidae: African cro Codie = = et Crocodylus nilovicuse ee 2 Broad-nosed crocodile-__---------- Osteolaemus tetraspis__-.-------- 2 Narrow-nosed crocodile___-_____-__- Crocodylus cataphractus_-_-------- 1 Salt-water crocodile _ -.tee=c Rayan Crocodylus porosus_ 222222) Be 1 American crocodiles shejss2-eLc2e* Crocodylus aeutis- 22a = 2 Alligators: 3222 2= Shee eee eee Alligator mississipiensis___------ 16 Chinese alligator. s.uniieee Ri Bae Alligator. Stnensts=— = ae 2 Caimane tees 2. 32 ee nl eet Caiman. sclerops 2-4-2 5 ee 9 (GAEDE ek nc a. eine me eee Tomistoma scnleget— += a2 ee 1 SAURIA Gekkonidae: FlouseteekOne 22220055. ens eee. Gecko monatchuse =o... eae 2 Geckorsenmeieee os 5. tate ae Tarentola mauritanica_---------- 1 Giant eecko ys 222k ake Bee Geckowmithias® 22 1 Giant lec kK Ose ses ee eee ae Gecko: Stenione ee eee 1 Agamidae: HOResGWiZaT Gee pee ee See Gonocephalus borneensis__--_---- 1 Horest lizards? s2)etoch Bal Soe 2 28 Gonocephalus grandis_.__-------- 1 Bilyanpylizen c= seen eee cues Draco quinquefasciata___-------- 1 Chamaeleonidae: Meller’s chameleon _—..._.-..-_..- Chama@eleomellert <2 224. ee 3 Flap-necked chameleon__________-- Chamacleo dilepis-— = 10 Iguanidae: Commonhicuanaesees =. ee eee GUANO WANGNE ees ce eee 3 Carolinavanoles 32552 --) ee ene Anolis carolinensis____--------- Many GaantqanOles! 2 eae an ate ee Anolis eqiesthisase == 22 Se eee 1 Dexasihorned ilizards 2 22. Phrynosoma cornutum___-------- 12 Western horned lizard_._........-- Phrynosoma cornutum_-_--------- 2 iemcewlizard S52 hese eee ee al Sceloporus undulatus___--------- 3 Spiny-tailed iguana. ....--.. == Clenosaurus Nig7G=2--— ~~ -—-=-- == 1 Weseniinuana=o- 2-52-22 2 ee Dy DSOSOMMUESHO OTS OLS = aa a en if DONOED Spiny mMIZATd. —. 5 = = eee Scelaponus Clankisons = 25 nee 2 pouthern prairie lizard. _.....-2-__— Sceloporus undulatus___--------- 1 Pinedlizar cies peels 2 oe Sceloporus undulatus__---------- 2 Crevice spiny lizards.) 22222 ISCCLO MOTUS VOLNSEILU Na y= ae 2 Eeopard lizardee 3e 20 a oo Crotaphytus wislizent___--------- 2 Collaredilizardiee rete 2 ks 2 a Crotaphytus:collarigs 2-2 2-2 == 1 Western earless lizard___-__-_____-- Holbrookia maculata__-_--------- 2 Ameivailizard = .2Ses-aoss2 2522 ANG LUGNUMCWE a = ae hae eee 1 British Guiana green lizard_______- Centronyxsiniatuse= == se 1 SECRETARY’S REPORT Family and common name Scincidae: Mourning skinks 2-425 ote oo = Wihite sisitmilcot a et pe Greater five-lined skink__________- (Greatiol lain sig kita kee eee ee Mo uiT= le Gs ka Keene Sandiskamkee se tee eae SLUM p-tailed lizard. s+ ong Ground skinikes se, tae ee = eee Malayan skink = 22.0.2) st eae Gerrhosauridae: IPewweol Wi sa ee eee SS Teiidae: Blackste gue tsa ee et tee Mellow tegiice. 252 Sahat a eee te Lacertidae: European green lizard___-.-------- Anguidae: Glassmizand@s] soo eases se ee ae Southern alligator lizard________-_- Adlisstor lizard’ = 2 i 2. 4-F et oes Helodermatidae: Mexican beaded lizard___________- Beaded lizard (black phase) GilamMons teresa ee ee Varanidae: Bornean rough-necked monitor liz- ard. iImdian) monitor lizard= 522-2222 Indianemoniton Lizards eee Australian lace monitor______-_-_- Cape monitor. 2. ota et toe Boidae: Scientific name Egernia luctuosa___-_----- ESGERNiG WNUCt aaa Eumeces fascratus____----- Eumeces obsoletus_-_.----- Eumeces tetragrammus-_. —- Scincus officinalis___-_-__- Trachysaurus rugosus —_--- Lygosoma laterale___----_- Mabuya multifasciata—_ _-_ Gerrhosaurus major ------ Tupinambis nigropunctatus_____-- Tupinambis teguixin.--_- Lacerta viridis_.____-_._- Ophisaurus ventralis___--- Gerrhonotus multicarinatus Gerrhonotus multicarinatus Heloderma horridum____-- Heloderma horridum___--- Heloderma suspectum__-_-_- Varanus nudicollis_____-- Varanus flavescens___--_- Varanus salvator._____--- SERPENTES Balltpy thom cece ees pe ee ANTON PONANNON A ee eee eaasor Indianvrock pythan=—-..2-4-4=-.. 2 Recalepythonees sas eee see ee Eimperomboas. -2. at Ae Acrochordidae: Elephant trunk snake______.------ Colubridae: Slatenwaten sia ke mene ee Biving snake. 2.) 4- ae aden te Willer Snake Se te ee AE ere wie. OF: Vine, SWAKC r= =o Sooo os Mrud/isnakess seosee = 2 ee eee Eunectes murinus_------- Epicrates striatus_.__---- Epicrates cenchria_____--- Epicrates angulifer_—----- IBoarenyariss= ee BOaken GTS a= Pathonmeguuse = tye Pe ythoneSeo dea ee EC hOREMOLUTALS =e Python reticulatus___----- Constrictor imperator - __-- Acrochordus javanicus - - - - Enhydris plumbea____---- Chrysopelea ornata__-_---- Oxybelis acuminatus__---- Thelotornis kirklandi- ---- Farancia abacura_------- NN RF NN FD OO WN tS — BPwnehoranne Bhp ee De — NWR Oo 174 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Family and common name Scientific name Number Colubridae—Continued Kangysnakest ies ae eee Lampropeltis getulus.--.-------- 3 Speckled king snake_=—--_22--__-- Lampropeltis getulus_—-_--------- 3 Califormiasking snake2=~2-- +222. "" Lampropeltis getulus__--_-_---_- 2 Florida kingssnakes2 "over S2eeE> Lampropeltis getulus.-.--------- 2 Sonoranikinejsnakes22 ses Ven eee Eampropeltisngetulus==) == seen = 1 Scarleteking snake! SPs Se Pee Lampropeliis deliatas=> = 222 ys 1 Milk.enakes=+ ==) eee Lampropeltis triangulum__------- 2 Molejsnakes-2552>22Rt Sen aaieeae Lampropeltis rhombomaculata____- 1 Tropical ‘king-snagkess toe eee Lampropeltis polyzonus___------- 1 Cartensnakesse esse ene = eee ThGgmnnopnis Si7talys a 8 Lake Erie garter snake__-_-__-_---- Thamnophis sirtalis.------------ i Eastern hognose snake-_-_--------- Heterodon platyrhinos___-.------ 1 Western hognose snake___-_-_-_-_- ETeterodonenastcuse=====5=" a= 2 Green snake:= 2 eet eae See Onheodrys acsiivus— Sse eet art 4 1 Watersnaikess.. 22+ > os= oe ecee ene INGtaAaESUDedOn =e 5 Diamond-backed water snake -____-_- Nairiz rhombiferas = es ee 1 Brown water snake______-----_--- INGUTAEILOLUS DULOLQ me 1 Red-bellied water snake____-___-_- Natrictenythrogasters===5"=s5=— 2s 1 Morida water snakes. 2! eres Natrix prciwentrise. = eae a ee 4 MLessellatedtsnakess==es s=saeee = Natucttesscllatiise=== === ee 1 Island water snakes. /__---. +. 22.- NGI USULGEU a ae ee ee 1 Manorove snakes os) 2 han manne Natriz compressicauda___-------- 2 Indigo snake ==> Tees Nee Vey ee Drymarchon corais= 2 -- 2 eae 1 Texasindigo snake? 223 24% Pst ewar Drymarchon-coraiss.2==-12 oes 1 Pilot black snake, albino---------- Hilapheobsoleta_=- 2 =. 2 eee 1 Rilotsblacktsnakes=si2 esse eens ee Hiaphe-opsolctas sus auet eee “4 Southern pilot black snake____-_-_~- Blaphevobsoleta__=— .- =. 25-22 1 Cormsnake =3s25=ses sense Seve Blaphevobsoletaq=a= =e = ae aes 1 Lindheimer’s rat snake____----_-_- Flaphe:-obsoleta 40 es ane) at 1 Chickentsnake.2s="ss"eeeece ese Elaphe quadrivittata___---------- 6 Acsculapianisnale 2? vos sien Se ee Elaphe longusstma:=-===222 ae 1 Blackinacenes. 2 see. see eae Ses Golubersconstnt clo 1 Rederaceweeee ayen ee aa aa See Masticophis flagellum__.--------- 1 Western coachwhip snake_____----- Masticophis flagellum__.-.------- 2 Asiaticuratisnake x= 2ee as euee ness Hlaohetaentiund= = 2222s e eee 3 Lesser Indian rat snake_____------ Blaphecaninatc=====4— =e 4 African house snake, or musaga___. Boaedon lineatum__------------- 2 Ring-neckedisnakes== 27 42h) Seer ees Diadophis punctatusa222 22522222 2 Dekay is snake=s2-=ss=s2e 05522 8 Sioreria dekayt=====22s=225222-- = 2 Grass green whip snake_-_--__--__~-- Dryophis prasinis oe eee 1 Dhaman;,--or- Greater “Indian °rat Piyas mucosus====2===2=-" 25" 222 9 snake. Rileisnako rs as sae ONE SE Simocephalus capensis____------- 1 Elapidae: Boomslang:<<=<= 2 US Se. reno Dispholidus typhus__.----------- 3 ihadianicopras =) 46.5.9) 22 ese NajenejG. 49. 32524. 4 PaAiwanceobras = 522th Cl we Be NOjG:nGjG=-=2=5 508 GU VERE 14 PACK CObnas 2 220. Se Baad ee Naja melanoleuca_-------------- 1 Hgyptian:cobra---< 2 ee Sr Naja haje.<=22.2222-2%e0t DAs 2 Kaingrcobravs2 22 22ers DSSS Ose Ophiophagus hannah-__---------- 1 Keraitinc 22 men = hE OURS. SLRS Bungarus multicinctus__--------- 6 SECRETARY’S REPORT 7S Family and common name Scientific name Number Crotalidae: Northern copperhead snake__--.-_-__ Ancistrodon contortriz__.._.-___- 5 Broad-banded copperhead_ -_-____~_-_- Ancistrodon contortriz_.__-.-_-_- 1 Water moccasin, or cottonmouth___ Ancistrodon piscivorus_.________- 4 C277) 1 hs Aes ee ee ee ne a RO Ancistrodon bilineatus__-_______- 2 AWsian’snorkel viper. ---=----2s54- ANCISIHT OMRON ACULUS. a= 2 3 Paine igoe rs eee ee lg ey 5 Trimeresurus stejnegeri___-._____- 15 Pope's pit viper. 2-2 52 es cee SE Trimeresurus popeorum_...------ 1 Wagler’s pit viper: - 2.2 Trimeresurus waglert_.._...----_- 1 Mamushi, or Asiatic viper________- Tromenesurus elegamsa. —- == 55-2 = 3 Habu, or Asiatic viperi.ct- 222545 Trimeresurus flavoviridis________- 1 Eastern diamondback rattlesnake... Crotalus adamanteus__.__-_---_- 3 Western diamondback rattlesnake__ Crotalus atror__.._._....__------ 2 Viperidae: Puli adder. 2. 2.8 ste ee 22 Bee 4 Ambystomidae: Wiger'salamander™ 2 - "= ese ee Ambystoma tigrinum_______-_--- 2 Small-mouthed salamander_____-_-- Ambystoma texanum____.______-- if Salamandridae: Redebellied newtse- sesso e oe) =e Cynops pyrrhogaster__.___-_-_-_- 12 Red-spotted newt___.------------- Diemictylus viridescens_______-__- 15 SALIENTIA Bufonidae: AMMETICAT COAG tee heen ae ee oe Duforamericanuss=—= a7 & ae 6 BOres¢ toaGs 2 ee ek oe Bufo blombergit==== 4) Cea eee 1 Giant toad sess eee ee eee ene SU ONNLOTUTUUS a= a te ae 5 Cubantwioadece samc se se era ae Bufo peltocephatus2 - Uo. ere rss 6 Pelobatidae: SpAderuoe LOAd lo = Nee ee ae eS Scaphiopus holbrooki_____-_----- a Pipidae: Surinam tox 722 eee ee eee eS Pipa pipes SOs Ta et 20 Leptodactylidae: Colombian horned frog____--__---- Ceratophrys calcarata_____------- 2 Argentine horned frog____--------- Ceratophrys ornata_______-__---_- 1 Hylidae: Suuirrel wreetrog sess ses eee Eyjla-squirella ls: Dear ieont Bah 6 Green treeurogs 22s eee ee Hyla-cinereas2 = 22 22 26h Beare 1 Gray trecntOe ae ee eee eee ee Hyla versicolor. ——— =... 222 ae 13 Microhylidae: Narrow-mouthed toad_......------ Microhyla olivacea___-.--------- 2 SECRETARY’S REPORT Family and common name Scientific name Ranidae: African _bulliirog. 2 sy.c lead! Rana adspersa Americans pullitrog= = === == eee Rana catesbeiana @reenifirog.. 2.2: a enna Rana clamitans Heopard! frog... ssa Rat siasere Rana pipiens Rhacophoridae: African flash tree frog.._.._.__-.-- Hylambates maculatus Dendrobatidae: Green poison-arrow frog__-___-_-_- Dendrobates tinctorius ARTHROPODS DECAPODA Cenobitidae: icand! hermitecrabes = 5... =e 2 ae == Coenobita clypeatus ARANEIDA Theraphosidae: darantulaess Aan = Se ae eee ee Eurypelma hentzi Theridiidae: Black-widow spider. ._------------ Latrodectus mactans SCORPIONIDA Vejovidae: Stripe-tailed scorpion____-_------_-- Vejovis spinigerus_.__-__-_-- African giant black scorpion _-__--_- Pandinus imperator ORTHOPTERA Blattidae: Tropical giant cockroach_--_.------ Blaberus giganteus MOLLUSKS PULMONATA Planorbidae: Pond smaiise se seis ae Some eee ae Helisoma trivolvis____.-_--- FISHES NEOCERATODONTOIDEI Lepidosirenidae: South American lungfish__________- Lepidosiren paradoxa Protopteridae: AdricamplungAsh= es 225 see ares Protopterus annectens OSTARIOPHYSOIDEI Characidae: Metymiig= aoe sete ene a oe oe Metynnis rooseveltit Gymnotidae: African knitehsh 2-26. 222. S22 Sternarchella schotti Cyprinidae: ZFeprafishwet ie 22 Sire 2 be, sete ero 2 Brachydanio rerio White Cloud Mountain fish_______- Tanichthys albonubes Le Number Many No — Many 20 178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Family and common name Scientific name Number Cobitidae: Large: kubliin 2... vasaetn ne Acanthophthalmus semicinctus__ _- 1 Callichthyidae: Corydoras: 5226 2 ee es ee Corydoras hastatus=_ ._- =- 2 2 Corydoras scavenger catfish_______- Corydoras paleatus_-___ pee 1 Loricariidae: Armored catfish=siwusane aninalien ts Plecostomus plecostomus___--_--- 2 CYPRINODONTOIDEI Poeciliidae: BlueyamoUsia a see ee ae eee ee Gambusia punctatus. ___-_-_----- 2 Blag-tailed guppy.) 24.5.2 = =n epistles TeliCulatus= o2 35 see ee 10 Guppy wees set eee ee ee WICOISLCSURCLICLOLULS aaa e oe ae 22 Blacokwmmiolliez..: Sie es ap ree Mollienisia latipinna_--_--------- 3 Plgty, ;OnmMmoonnsn- =a ee eae aes] aa Xiphophorus maculatus_._------- 5 PERCOMORPHOIDEI Anabantoidea: Climibingjnerch- see" eee ee Anabasitesindincus 222 = ee eee 3 IBC COUrAMIS SF a5 ee ee Trichogaster trichopterus_ — - ~~ ---- 1 Cichlidae: iReacockscichlid= ase === =e Astronotus occllatus. = == === =e = 1 Egyptian mouthbreeder___________ Haplochromis multicolor___ ---- -- 1 Angelis osc eee Aa See La) Pterophylluny scalares2— 22 22 aee 5 PYGMY HIPPOPOTAMUSES Because the National Zoological Park had considerable success in raising pygmy hippopotamuses, it seems advisable to list the breeding record here. The first pygmy hippopotamus to come to the Zoo was a gift from Harvey Firestone, Sr., to President Calvin Coolidge in 1927. It was known as Billy. In 1929 a mate, Hannah, was pur- chased. In 1940 the Smithsonian Institution-Firestone Expedition returned from Liberia with one young male, which died May 3, 1943, and one adult female (known as Matilda). Billy and Hannah August 26, 1931, male, died August 27, 1931, killed by mother. August 21, 1932, male, died August 22, 1932, killed by mother. April 29, 19383, male, died April 29, 1933, killed by mother. May 8, 1938, female, sent to Cole Bros. Circus April 26, 1939. June 24, 1939, female, prematurely born, died June 25, 1939. February 25, 1940, female, died October 28, 1942. May 9, 1941, female, sent to Philadelphia Zoological Gardens March 16, 1944. February 1, 1943, female, died February 2, 19438. February 20, 1945, male, sent to Miller Bros. Circus January 7, 1950. December 21, 1945, female, died December 21, 1945. October 11, 1947, female, died February 11, 1948. March 12, 1950, female, sent to Catskill Game Farm June 16, 1953. June 13, 1951, male, sent to Catskill Game Farm June 16, 1958. April 26, 1953, female, died November 8, 1953. June 8, 1954, female, died June 23, 1955. SECRETARY’S REPORT 179 Billy and Matilda December 13, 19438, male, sent to Fort Worth (Tex.) Zoo. March 5, 1947, female (living in NZP). July 3, 1948, female (living in NZP). December 20, 1949, female, sent to Sydney, Australia, October 18, 1954. April 24, 1952, male, died October 8, 1952. October 2, 1953, female, died September 16, 1954. January 30, 1955, female, sent to John Seago, England, September 7, 1956. March 29, 1956, female, sent to L. Ruhe, New York, May 7, 1957. Matilda and two of her daughters are still living in the National Zoological Park. Billy died on October 11, 1955, and Hannah on March 6, 1958. FINANCES Funds for the operation of the National Zoological Park are appro- priated annually under the District of Columbia Appropriation Act. The operation and maintenance appropriation for the fiscal year 1959 totaled $953,800, which includes a supplemental appropriation of $55,- 800. This was an increase of $120,800 over fiscal year 1958. The increase consisted of $55,800 supplemental for pay increases in accord- ance with Public Law 85-462 and Wage Board increases approved by the District of Columbia Commissioners in June 1958; $52,833 to establish 14 new positions; $4,700 for the purchase of new equipment; $7,467 increase in miscellaneous supplies. Of the $953,800 appro- priated, $734,666 was for salaries and $219,134 for the maintenance and operation of the Zoo. Included in the latter figure were major operational expenditures amounting to $180,434, consisting of $65,- 000 for animal food; $17,168 for fuel for heating; $29,545 for ma- terials, building, construction, and repairs; $44,979 for civil service retirement; $3,575 for the purchase of animals; $9,101 for electricity ; $3,633 for telephone, postal, and telegraph services; $5,000 for veter- inarian equipment and supplies; and $2,433 for Federal employees group life insurance. The balance of $28,700 in operational funds was expended for other items, including freight, sundry supplies, uni- forms, gasoline, road repairs, equipment replacement, and new equipment. In addition to the regular appropriation, $50,000 was allotted for capital outlay. This money was used to renovate the deer paddocks at the Connecticut Avenue entrance and to restore the area for aquatic mammals above the sea-lion pool. PERSONNEL There are 158 authorized positions at the Zoo divided as follows: Administrative office, 16; animal department, 58; mechanical depart- ment, 50; police department, 27; and grounds department, 7. 180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Lee O. Burris, who was appointed head gardener on March 1, 1954, retired on October 31, 1958. Michael Dubik, formerly assistant head gardener, became the supervisory gardener. During the year nine police officers completed a police course of- fered by the University of Maryland, and five keepers attended a course in supervision at the Department of Agriculture Night School. On March 17, at a luncheon in the Zoo Park Restaurant, six women were honored for their efforts in behalf of the National Zoological Park. Five were wives of Zoo officials or keepers; the sixth was the mother of a keeper, and all had taken baby animals into their homes to care for them, and had successfully raised them for the Zoo. The Director introduced the guests of honor, and Dr. Carmichael, Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution, presented each one with a certifi- cate of appreciation. Those receiving the certificates were Mrs. Lucile Q. Mann, Mrs. Esther S. Walker, Mrs. Elizabeth C. Reed, Mrs. Mar- garet A. Grimmer, Mrs. Louise E. Gallagher, and Mrs. Nettie L Stroman. INFORMATION AND EDUCATION The Zoo continues to handle a large correspondence with persons all over the world who write for information regarding animals. From every part of this country citizens write to the Zoo as a national institution. Telephone calls come in constantly, asking for identifica- tion of animals, proper diets, or treatment of disease. Visitors to the office as well as to the animal exhibits are constantly seeking informa- tion. The Director spoke before six civic groups and one school group and appeared on six television programs, displaying animals from the Zoo. A symposium on “Recognition and Treatment of Snake Bite” was given to the medical staff of Children’s Hospital by the Associate Director. Dr. James F. Wright, veterinarian, published two articles in Vet- erinary Medicine: “Necrotic Stomatitis in an American Elix” (October 1958) and “Treatment of Captive Wild Animals Using an Automatic Projectile Type Syringe” (January 1959). Malcom Davis, associate headkeeper, continued to write his weekly nature column for the Herndon-Chantilly (Va.) Times and the Lou- doun Times Mirror as a public service. He published a monthly article in Adll-Pets Magazine and the American Cage-Bird Magazine, as well as biological notes for The Auk and notes for the Pheasant Breeders Gazette. He spoke on three television programs and broad- cast a nature script once a month from the Herndon, Va., radio station. He also spoke to four civic clubs and two high-school biology classes on Zoo animals. Mr. Davis, who is a charter member of the Inter- SECRETARY’S REPORT 18l national Wild Waterfowl Association, Inc., was appointed to its board of directors in July 1958. Keepers Burgess, DePrato, Stroman, Welk, and Widman brought young animals to the television screen repeatedly. Many of these programs were on “Time for Science” from WTTG, which is watched by 43,000 students in the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Vir- ginia schools. A half-hour program devoted to the Zoo was broad- cast from WTOP, sponsored by the Friends of the National Zoo, and showed the Director and Keepers Maliniak, Stroman, and Gal- lagher with a young gibbon, a baby chimpanzee, and two hybrid bear cubs. Ordinarily the Zoo does not conduct guided tours of the park, but exceptions were made for groups of physically handicapped children who visited the park. Two groups were from the District of Colum- bia Health School, whose children were brought by the Kiwanis Club, and another from the Silver Spring Intermediate School. A small group of blind children were conducted through the Zoo in July 1958. They came from Four Corners (Md.) School and were sponsored by the Lions Club International. Fifteen members of the Virginia Society of Ornithology, Northern Branch, met at the birdhouse to study Central American birds. The American Society of Mammalogists, during its 3-day meeting in Washington, spent an afternoon on a guided tour of the Zoo. Ten students of chordate anatomy from Baltimore (Md.) Junior College were taken on a tour of the reptile house by Senior Keeper Mario DePrato. While the Zoo does not conduct a regular research program as such, effort is made to study the animals and to improve their health, hous- ing, and diet in every way possible. VETERINARIAN’S REPORT During the past year further uses of the projectile syringe for treat- ment and immobilization of the large animals in the collection were investigated. With the help of Dr. Warren Pistey of the New England Institute for Medical Research, experiments utilizing the drug succinylcholine were carried out on numerous species with a view to developing a safe method of immobilizing animals for treatment and such routine procedures as the intradermic tuberculin test. Successful immobiliza- tion was accomplished by this method in the zebu, eland, tiger, lion, fallow deer, Virginia deer, gaur, American elk, yak, American bison, giraffe, peccary, and red deer. All these were immobilized without any form of physical restraint being applied. The full particulars of these and other immobilizations are to be published in two papers concerning the use of succinylcholine. The first paper was presented 182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 with motion pictures by Dr. Pistey at the Midwinter Conference of the Midwestern Zoological Park Directors at Columbus, Ohio, in Febru- ary 1959. The projectile syringe was used also to effect the capture of an escaped Barbary ape. In this case the drug used for immobilization was the alkaloidal form of nicotine because of its more rapid and predictable action. The past year has shown that the change in diets instituted in 1958 was a wise move. Wastage sharply decreased, animal reproduction is Improved, and a better understanding of the nutritional state of the collection has been gained. One dietary change of major im- portance was instituted this year by the substitution of a packing- house byproduct for a portion of the raw ground horsemeat formerly used as the carnivore ration. This product has a much better nutri- tional analysis than horsemeat and requires no labor to bone and grind, as it is supplied ready to use. Asin the past 2 years, all bacterial isolations and identifications were made by Dr. F. R. Lucas, director of the Livestock Sanitary Labora- tory at Centreville, Md. At least 300 bacterial isolations and 25 tissue examinations were made by Dr. Lucas for the park in the past year. Most important of the bacterial isolations are the following: 1. Four isolations of Salmonella typhimurium from the fecals of hoatzins brought back from British Guiana by Mr. Grimmer. . Salmonella typhimurium from a great red-crested cockatoo. . Salmonella cholerasuis var. kunzendorf from the spleen of a slow loris. . Salmonella arizona from a fox snake. . Salmonella edinburg from the intestine of a viper. . Salmonella georgia from the blood of a rainbow snake. . Hemolytic micrococcus from a young DeBrazza’s guenon. . Hemolytic micrococcus from a pronghorn antelope. . Short chain streptococcus and pasteurella from an Indian rhinoceros. © co a1 o> Ot ® oy bo The numerous enteric pathogens being isolated indicate that more attention must be paid to the cleanliness of food preparation and utensil cleaning operations. In addition to the above, Dr. Lucas also identified Leptospira or- ganisms in dark-field examinations of kidney tissues from one of the Zoo’s aged bush dogs which showed gross kidney pathology. This and earlier reports indicate that leptospirosis is a problem in small mammals, particularly the canines. Many parasite identifications were made by A. McIntosh and M. B. Chitwood of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The following parasites, however, are repeatedly identified from the species indicated : Bears—Torascaris transfuga. Cats—Tozascaris leonine. Grant’s zebrasS—Parascaris gebrae, SECRETARY’S REPORT 183 Albatrosses—T etrabothrium cestodes. Snakes—Neorenifer flukes, Bothridium and Ophiotaenia cestodes. The bears, cats, and zebras have been repeatedly treated with pipera- zine compounds, but the parasites persist. The zebra paddocks are certainly contaminated with infective parasite eggs, but the cats and bears are on concrete, which should help to break the parasite cycle. Several of the Zoo’s more valuable large mammals died during the year. The first loss was the female wisent, which had a fine calf by her side. She died within minutes of being found down. No previous indication of sickness in the animal was noticed, and nothing un- usual was noted on the day prior to death. Necropsy was performed by the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, but the gross post mortem failed to disclose the cause of death. -2 Blue Morning. (Ojai es oe ae Domersuess— 2] 25 Mrs. Dale. DOnee Ateneo se oe Gros's 2.234. .2 322 Dr. Vignardonne. Cols ands Mrs: Jidgar W.., Warl- 2222.22.22 Mrs. Noah Smith and Her Garbisch, New York, Five Children. N.Y. Mr. and Mrs. Carleton Van Gogh_---_----_- The Stevedores. Mitchell, Annapolis, Md. DQ eet eae wee Cézanne 22522 522 Man with Crossed Arms. The Samuel H. Kress Foun- Massys____--.----- Salvator Mundi. dation, New York, N.Y. DOs ee oe es Mapnasco.- ==... . Bay with Shipwreck. 1D Yo eet ae oS ers Ee @orregaio= 2222 5- =e Salvator Mundi. WORKS OF ART ON LOAN RETURNED The following works of art on loan were returned during the fiscal year: To Artist Title The Samuel H. Kress Foun- Ferrucci_____.--__- Madonna and Child. dation, New York, N.Y. 1B Yo) pe ty ese i sa fo ag Tino di Camaino__. Madonna and Child. 1D Yoyo i i eae Pintoricchio_—____- Madonna and Child. Don oa. se Se US Sienese School_._... Madonna and Child with St. Bartholomew and St. John the Baptist. Doe fer 22 Uses. Bu Neroccio de’ Landi. The Battle of Actium. Dons 2-2 ee Francesco di The Visit of Cleopatra to Giorgio. Anthony. Dot Somer era 7 Master of the Jarves The Triumph of Chastity. Cassoni. 1D Yo payin goalie eh tent MA a Guariento____-._-_- Madonna and Child with Four Saints. Dower e 5522+ ieee. Segna di Madonna and Child. Buonaventura. Don 22 cee aS Catena. 252 eee Portrait of a Woman. Doe ae wee esee Pe Weronese= So asc.ee The Baptism of Christ. DORE eres eee ee Botticelli. 22.5222 Madonna and Child. Dore seins eee Bontiglis.°. 232222 Madonna and Child En- throned. Dos ea ee a fe Rigsu@u see ues se President Hébert. 210 From Chester Dale, New York, NG Arnold W. Knauth II, Rock- port, Mass. Robert Woods Bliss, Wash- ington, D.C. WORKS OF ART LENT Flemish School XVI Century. German School XVI Century. Pisanello, Style of__ 19 objects of Pre-Co- lumbian Art. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Title Portrait of a Girl. Portrait of a Woman. Portrait of a Girl. Portrait of a Woman. Epes Sargent. During the fiscal year the Gallery lent the following works of art for exhibition purposes: To The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, N.Y. Museum of Fine Arts, Bos- ton, Mass. Boymans Museum, Rotter- dam, and the Orangerie, Paris. Westmoreland County Mu- seum, Greensburg, Pa. Pennsylvania Historical Mu- seum Commission, Har- risburg, Pa. Dose seu tne oe tL DOs Ss yoan ore eee A et ee ey Chatham College, Pitts- burgh, Pa. Birmingham Museum of Art, Birmingham, Ala. Smallwood Foundation, Inc., Faulkner, Md. U.S. Supreme Court, Wash- ington, D.C. Woodlawn Plantation, Mount Vernon, Va. Artist Moreau le Jeune____ George Cuitt, Younger. the Title Breezing Up. Hound and Hunter. Right and Left. Téte-a-Téte (drawing). Oui ou Non (drawing). Breezing Up. Hound and Hunter. Right and Left. Téte-a-Téte (drawing). Oui ou Non (drawing). Flax Scutching Bee. Mrs. Phoebe Freeman. James P. Smith. Henry Eichholtz Leman. William Clark Frazer. The Death of the Earl of Chatham. George Washington (Vaughan-Sinclair). General William Smallwood. Easby Abbey, near Rich- mond. General Washington at Princeton. SECRETARY’S REPORT al: EXHIBITIONS The following exhibitions were held at the National Gallery of Art during the fiscal year 1959: Etchings and Lithographs by Redon, from the Rosenwald collection. July 17, 1958, through December 7, 1958. Drawings and Prints by Rembrandt, from the Rosenwald and Widener collections. August 1, 1958, through September 21, 1958. Dutch Drawings—Masterpieces from Five Centuries, a special loan exhibition of 148 Dutch drawings, the most important ever shown in this country. October 5, 1958, through October 26, 1958. Winslow Homer—A Retrospective Exhibition, the Gallery’s second one-man show in honor of a leading American painter. November 23, 1958, through January 4, 1959. Christmas Prints, gift of W. G. Russell Allen and from the Rosenwald collection. December 8, 1958, through March 23, 1959. Whistler Etchings, gift of Mr. and Mrs. J. Watson Webb. March 23, 1959, through June 23, 1959. Masterpieces of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist Painting, loan exhibi- tion of French 19th-century paintings from private collections, celebrating the 50th anniversary of the founding of the American Federation of Arts and honoring the meetings of the International Chamber of Commerce. April 25, 1959, through May 24, 1959. Etchings and Mezzotints from Turner’s Liber Studiorum, gift of Miss Ellen T. Bullard and from the Rosenwald collection. June 25, 1959, to continue into the next fiscal year. TRAVELING EXHIBITIONS Rosenwald collection.—Special exhibitions of prints from the Rosenwald collection were circulated to the following places during the fiscal year 1959: Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service, Washington, D.C. : Contemporary German Prints. Exhibition tour extended through the fiscal year 1959. (Tour started October 1956.) George Bellows—Prints and Drawings. 19 prints. Continued until January 80, 1959. (Tour started March 1957.) American Federation of Arts, New York, N.Y.: The Life of Christ in Prints. 50 prints. Continued until February 10, 1959. (Tour started October 1957.) Arts Council of Great Britain: Two prints by Hayter lent to a touring exhibition of Hayter’s work starting in the fiscal year 1958 and continuing through July 1958. Museum of Art of Ogunquit, Maine: Fourteen prints and drawings by Mary Cassatt. Exhibition starting in the fiscal year 1958 and continuing through the first week of September 1958. Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass.: Daumier Anniversary Exhibition. 8 drawings and 35 prints by Daumier; also 8 bronzes by Daumier given by Mr. Rosenwald. July 1 through October 1, 1958. 212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 National Museum of Modern Art, Mexico City, Mexico: Inaugural Exhibition. 50 modern prints. September 1958 through April 1959. Marion Koogler McNay Art Institute, San Antonio, Tex.: Twenty-nine prints by Picasso. September and October 1958. Huntington Library, San Marino, Calif. : Five Daumier busts in Rosenwald Collection. August through October 1958. Sunday School Board, Southern Baptist Convention, Nashville, Tenn. : Twenty prints. September 10 to November 10, 1958. St. George’s School, Newport, R.I.: Fourteen prints. October 15 through November 15, 1958. Los Angeles County Museum, Los Angeles, Calif.: Exhibition of Daumier lithographs and sculpture. 1 woodblock, 5 bronzes, 25 prints and drawings. November and December 1958. Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service, Washington, D.C.: Dutch Drawing Exhibition. One Dutch miniature. November 1958 through April 1959. Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Mich. : Decorative Arts of the Italian Renaissance. One engraving. November 17, 1958 through January 6, 1959. Everhart Museum, Scranton, Pa.: Christmas Exhibition. 20 prints. Last week of November through Decem- ber 1958. Isaac Delgado Museum of Art, New Orleans, La. : Life of Christ. 52 prints. December 7 through December 28, 1958. The University of Nebraska Art Galleries, Lincoln, Nebr.: Twenty-six prints. January 16 through February 13, 1959. The University of Kansas Museum, Lawrence, Kans. : Two prints. January 18 through March 1, 1959. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, N.Y.: Homer Exhibition. One lithograph by Homer. January 29 through March 8, 1959. Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.: Gauguin Exhibition. Two monotypes by Gauguin. February and March 1959. Notre Dame University, Notre Dame, Ind.: Twenty-five prints. February 15 through April 5, 1959. Mary Washington College of the University of Virginia, Fredericksburg, Va.: Seventeen prints illustrating antique musical instruments. March 10 through March 31, 1959. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, N.Y.: Gauguin Exhibition. Two monotypes by Gauguin. April through May 1959. Hillel Foundation at Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pa.: Twenty-six prints on biblical themes. April 1 through April 15, 1959. Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.: The American Muse. One Audubon print. April 3 through May 17, 1959. Gallaudet College, Washington, D.C.: Three prints by Cadwallader Washburn. April 11 through June 8, 1959. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Va.: Twenty-four prints with subjects related to the law for an exhibition com- memorating the introduction of Common Law in the Colonies. May 14 through June 14, 1959. SECRETARY’S REPORT 213 Index of American Design.—During the fiscal year 1959, 27 travel- ing exhibitions (including 1,498 plates) with 44 bookings were circulated to Germany and the following States: State Number of State Number of exhibitions ewhibitions JES = ee 1 INOELh Caroling ase 1 Connecticut=e2-es-s2=. soca ae 2 Qi 0 2a eer eee aed ee 4 District of Columbiass====—---—— 2 Pennsylvanias=22 =o Th 1 oy oh 6 fr ee hk aE ee ed eee ee 2 Rhodesland:242o2- 2.2 1 Indianasse ese A eee See 1 enn @SSe@s-5 Sie ee il TOW ae ae ee a ee 2 NEXaS ee eth se ee eee ot Maryland Ses eee ee 1 (italia Set. ose ee ee 3 Minnesotasse sss se eee 1 Virgcinige sors o ecco eat aces 8 ING WAY Orke oi set) cue aia 1 West Virzinigis: a2 ts ees ee 1 CURATORIAL ACTIVITIES Under the direction of Dr. Perry B. Cott, chief curator, the cura- torial department accessioned 238 gifts to the Gallery during the fiscal year 1959. Advice was given regarding 381 works of art brought to the Gallery for expert opinion and 18 visits to collections were made by members of the staff in connection with offers of gifts. About 2,200 inquiries requiring research were answered verbally and by letter. William P. Campbell, curator of painting, lectured on Karly Amer- ican Masterpieces in the National Gallery of Art at the Williamsburg Antiques Forum. During the year members of the curatorial staff assisted in the judging of the following art exhibitions: Dr. Fern Rusk Shapley: Conservative Contemporary Art at the State Fair in Birmingham, Ala., and Virginia Artists at Vienna, Va.; Dr. H. Lester Cooke: Ex- hibitions sponsored by the Waterford Art Society, Virginia, Wilming- ton Society of the Fine Arts, and the USIA exhibition of Washington artists; Thomas P. Baird: Delmarva Chicken Festival, Dover, Del.; Ralph T. Coe: Exhibition held at The Plains, Va. The Richter Archives received and cataloged over 700 photographs on exchange from museums here and abroad, and 3,055 photographs were purchased for the Richter Archives. RESTORATION Francis Sullivan, resident restorer of the Gallery, made regular and systematic inspection of all works of art in the Gallery, and periodically removed dust and bloom as required. He relined 11 paintings and gave special treatment to 38 paintings and 2 pieces of sculpture. Nineteen paintings were X-rayed as an aid in research. Experiments were continued with synthetic varnishes, and a fluores- 214 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 cent light rack was built to test the fading of paints and pigments in cooperation with the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pitts- burgh, Pa. In September, Mr. Sullivan attended a seminar held in Boston, Mass., on “Application of Science in Examination of Works of Art.” In the spring he also made trips to New York, Bryn Athyn, Pa., and Annapolis, Md., to supervise the collecting and return of paintings for the exhibition “Masterpieces of Impressionist and Post- Impressionist Painting.” Technical advice on condition and care of paintings was given when works of art were brought to the Gallery, and such technical information as could be given when requested by the public. He inspected all Gallery paintings on loan in Government buildings in Washington, and also gave advice on the special treatment of works of art belonging to Government agencies, including the Capitol, the White House, the Supreme Court, the State Department, the Treasury, the Department of the Interior, the Maritime Com- mission, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Freer Gallery of Art. PUBLICATIONS Dr. Perry B. Cott, chief curator, contributed an article entitled “A Note on Houdon’s Bust of Diana” to Studies in the History of Art dedicated to William E. Suida on his 80th birthday, 1959. He also wrote an article for the World Book Encyclopedia on the “Art Museum.” Dr. Fern Rusk Shapley, assistant chief curator, also contributed an article entitled “Baldassare d’ Este and a Portrait of Francesco II Gonzaga” to Studies in the History of Art dedicated to William E. Suida. Dr. H. Lester Cooke, museum curator, wrote the following arti- cles: “The Art of Edward Hopper,” America Illustrated, 1959, No. 32; “The Art of George Bellows,” American Magazine, May 1959; and the introduction to a catalog of an exhibition of Washington artists sent to Europe by USIA. Ralph T. Coe, museum curator, contributed an article entitled “Im- pressionists in Washington” to the Burlington Magazine, June 1959. During the fiscal year 1959 the Publications Fund published one new 11- by 14-inch color reproduction and eight new color and five new black-and-white Christmas cards. A large pochoir reproduc- tion of a picture of the National Gallery of Art building was pub- lished by an outside publisher and was placed on sale by the fund. Fifteen new 2- by 2-inch color-slide subjects were added to the selec- tion available, and two more sets of slides were issued. Color plates of five new subjects for 11- by 14-inch prints were com- pleted during the year, and, in addition, work was begun on color Secretary's Report, 1959 PLATE 7 ° RRR RT : Some 1. The Meeting of Abraham and Melchizedek: Peter Paul Rubens. Gift of Syma Busiel, National Gallery of Art. sity i Ey ei ~ 2. Madonna and Child with Saints in the Enclosed Gardens: Master of Flémalle and Assistants. Samuel H. Kress Collection, National Gallery of Art. PLATE 8 Secretary's Report, 1959 yy jo Arayeg JeuonenN ‘uonsa[joD ssoly ‘Fy jenureg ‘aysaqiaoy uueYyof :uoIsusosy dt], * = c ‘yy Jo Aloe [euoneN ‘uorjsa1][0D ssolyy ‘fT Jenureg ‘osauolaA Oforg :uolviIounuuy eu al Secretary's Report, 1959 PLATE 9 The Holy Family: El Greco. Samuel H. Kress Collection, National Gallery of Art. PLATE 10 Secretary's Report, 1959 ‘ay Jo Aray]ey [euoneENy *AIIO5) JuesaAAnqg YUPA SYN JOI!H “Jouryy psenopy : (opwey Se aoIAnog jo eimi0d) uvipsseiy, oJ, (é "Jy fo Asojjesy) [PuONeN ‘uonep -unOJ uo[eAY JO Jig, sAd[doDd uojajsutg uyof :quazieg sad (x —_— ee ie NO Rt aati nN Rohsenens SECRETARY’S REPORT 215 plates for a series of booklets to be issued by the Publications Fund on the schools of painting represented in the Gallery. The publications sales rooms operated by the Publications Fund enjoyed their busiest year, serving 184,254 individuals, organizations, etc. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM The program of the Educational Office was carried out under the supervision of Dr. Raymond S. Stites, curator in charge of educa- tional work, and his staff, who lectured and conducted tours in the Gallery on the works of art in its collections. The attendance for the general tours, Tours of the Week, and Pic- ture of the Week talks totaled 40,532 persons; while that of the audi- torium lectures on Sunday afternoon totaled 14,515 persons. Tours, lectures, and conferences were arranged by special appoint- ment for 340 groups and individuals. The total number of persons served in this manner was 11,585, an increase over last year of 3,488 persons. These special appointments were made for such groups as the various governmental agencies, educators (both foreign and American), religious groups, Girl Scouts, 4-H Clubs, convention groups, and members of the radio and television industry. The program for the training of volunteer docents continued, and during the fiscal year 1959 special instruction was given to 100 women under the general supervision of the curator in charge of educational work. By special arrangement with the school systems of the District of Columbia and surrounding counties of Maryland and Virginia these women conducted tours for 1,546 classes with a total of 40,355 children—an increase over last year of 7,807 children visiting the Na- tional Gallery. The staff of the Educational Office delivered 23 lectures in the audi- torlum on Sunday afternoons and 24 lectures were given by guest speakers. During the month of April and the first two Sundays in May, the Eighth Annual Series of the A. W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts was delivered by the noted sculptor Naum Gabo, whose subject was “A Sculptor’s View of the Fine Arts.” The Educational Office continued to circulate the nine sets of travel- ing exhibitions to schools, clubs, libraries, and universities throughout the country, free of charge except for transportation costs. These were viewed by a total of 20,000 persons during the year. Fifteen copies of the old National Gallery of Art film “Your National Gallery of Art” were borrowed 34 times through distribution centers, and the new film “Art in the Western World” was borrowed 26 times by local borrowers. 536608—60——15 216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 The Educational Office continued the sale of slide strips, and during the year a total of 80 sets were sold. The sale of the filmstrip “The Art of the Florentine Golden Age in the National Gallery of Art” totaled 30 sets. A total of 1,750 slides were added to the slide collections during the year, and the slide library now contains 37,492 slides. A total of 10,982 slides were lent to 878 borrowers and seen by approximately 11,3840 viewers. There was an increase of 143 borrowers over last year, and a total of 3,748 more slides lent. A number of slide lecture sets with text are available for loan. Members of the staff prepared 6 more leaflets on works of art in individual galleries, and prepared mimeographed material for school groups, as well as undertaking the preparation of three illustrated 27- page booklets for sale at the publications sales rooms. A printed calendar of events announcing all Gallery activities and publications was prepared by the Educational Office and distributed monthly to a mailing list of 6,800 names. This is an increase over last year of 1,100 names. The staff members prepared and delivered twenty-nine 10-minute talks over station WGMS during intermission of the National Gallery of Art concerts broadcasts. The curator in charge of educational work delivered lectures to several university, church, and club groups, gave two talks over WMAL-TY for the National Council of Churches, appeared on TV in Providence, R.I., in a lecture on American art, and judged an art exhibition at the Navy Department. Grose Evans taught an evening course at George Washington Uni- versity, delivered a number of outside lectures, and acted as judge for several art contests in the area. Margaret Bouton taught evening courses in art at American University. Dorothea Michelson delivered a talk at the National Housing Center. Hugh Broadley taught an evening course in American art at American University. LIBRARY Important acquisitions to the library, recorded by Miss Ruth E. Carlson, librarian, and her staff, included 607 books, pamphlets, periodicals, subscriptions, and a group of 7,998 photographs purchased from private funds. A total of 44 books and subscriptions were purchased from Gov- ernment funds made available for this purpose. Gifts to the library included 773 books and pamphlets; 1,024 books, pamphlets, period- SECRETARY’S REPORT DANTE icals, and bulletins were received on exchange from other institutions. During the fiscal year the library cataloged 3,307 publications, and 1,984 periodicals were recorded; 12,177 catalog cards were filed. ‘The library borrowed 1,385 books on interlibrary loan; the Library of Congress lent 1,333 books. The library is the depository for photographs of the works of art in the National Gallery of Art’s collections. A stock of reproduc- tions is maintained for use in research, for exchange with other in- stitutions, and for sale to interested individuals. Approximately 6,300 photographs were received and processed in the library during the year. The library filled 1,148 orders for these photographs. Sales to the general public amounted to $1,195, covering about 1,600 photographs. There were 303 permits for reproduction of 783 sub- jects processed in the library. INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN During the fiscal year the work of the Index continued as usual, under the direction of Dr. Erwin O. Christensen, curator. Twenty sets (1,020 slides) of color slides in 65 bookings were circulated throughout the country. Regular sets were lent for lecture and study purposes. Notes were completed for one additional set of slides on furniture. Three new lectures were completed on Index material, and 1,003 photographs of Index material were used for exhibition and study purposes, as well as for publicity, and purchase by the public. The photographic file of the Index material has been increased by 1,650 prints. Approximately 406 persons studied Index material for research purposes, and to gather material for publication and design. Dr. Christensen continued to participate in the orientation program of the USIA personnel. The card-file index of the Index renderings was completed last year and an inventory of all photographs was begun. The curator of the Index prepared a report on the completion of the Index. In all, 357 photographs of New England gravestone carvings, dating from 1653 to 1810, and 5 photographs of wood statues were given to the Gallery by Saul Ludwig of Montclair, N.J., and Mrs. Hugh De Witt of Stanford, Calif., respectively, for the Index of American Design. MAINTENANCE OF THE BUILDING AND GROUNDS The Gallery building, the mechanical equipment, and its grounds were maintained at the established standards throughout the year, under the direction of Ernest R. Feidler, administrator, and his staff. 218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Lectour, the electronic guide system, was installed in 10 additional galleries. Several of the installations were experimental in that the electronic guide system was introduced in adjacent galleries. Here- tofore, in similar installations elsewhere and in the National Gallery of Art, service in adjacent galleries was deemed impractiable because of “crosstalk.” This problem was solved in the new installations made during this past fiscal year. The roofing over the Seventh and Fourth Street entrances and around the base of the dome, which had begun to deteriorate after 19 years of service, was replaced with roofing of improved design. Permanent and improved floodlighting on the north portico and adjacent to the flagpoles replaced the temporary lighting developed for the 15th anniversary of the Gallery in 1956. This permanent floodlighting illuminates the central portion of the building on the north side. The A.D.T. Aero Fire Alarm System was extended to the registrar’s storeroom. There was continued expansion of the Gallery’s horticulture pro- gram with the result that extraordinary displays of flowering plants were available for the Christmas and Easter seasons and several im- portant night openings. LECTOUR Lectour was installed and used successfully in two special exhibi- tions, and one foreign-language broadcast was prepared for a special group visit. Lectour was used by 72,793 Gallery visitors during the fiscal year 1959. The system is being used progressively more extensively by visitors, as evidenced by the fact that in the last month of the fiscal year 1958 the percentage of visitors using Lectour was 6.3 percent, whereas the latter part of this year the percentage rose to 9.7 percent. OTHER ACTIVITIES Forty Sunday-evening concerts were given during the fiscal year in the east garden court, including nine concerts by the National] Gal- lery of Art Orchestra under the direction of Richard Bales, two of which were made possible by the Music Performance Trust Fund of the American Federation of Musicians. A string orchestra under Mr. Bales’s direction furnished music during the opening of the Dutch Exhibition on October 4, 1958, and during the opening of the Wins- low Homer Exhibition on November 22, 1958. The National Gallery of Art orchestra with the Church of the Reformation cantata choir presented Mr. Bales’s two cantatas, “The Confederacy” and “The Union,” at the Watergate on July 30, 1958. On June 3, 1959, the National Gallery orchestra presented a concert at the Watergate in honor of the Governor of Casablanca (both concerts were paid for SECRETARY'S REPORT 219 by the Music Performance Trust Fund of the American Federation of Musicians). Mr. Bales appeared as guest conductor at a number of concerts in several cities throughout the United States during the year. Special concerts were held to commemorate United Nations Day and the Lincoln Sesquicentennial. Four Sunday evenings during May 1959 were devoted to the Gal- lery’s 16th American Music Festival. All concerts were broadcast in their entirety in stereophonic sound by station WGMS-AM and FM, Washington. The Voice of America regularly received portions of the Sunday evening concerts for transmission overseas. ‘The in- termissions during Sunday evening concerts featured discussions by members of the Educational Office staff and Mr. Bales. During the fiscal year, 4,103 copies of 14 press releases in connection with the Gallery’s activities were approved and issued by Director John Walker. In all, 148 permits to copy and 121 permits to photo- graph works of art in the Gallery were also issued. During the fiscal year, in response to requests from Senators and Congressmen, 9,872 copies of the pamphlet “A Cordial Invitation from the Director” and 9,636 copies of the National Gallery of Art Information Booklet were sent for distribution to their constituents; 29,800 copies of “A Cordial Invitation from the Director” were sent to various organizations holding conventions in the Washington area. During this fiscal year, the slide project begun in the fiscal year 1958 was carried to completion and sets of 500 color slides were sent to 114 colleges and universities having departments in the History of Art, and to museums having slide-lending services. This program was initiated in order to make slides of the works of art in the Na- tional Gallery of Art available in color at a minimum cost. Henry B. Beville, the Gallery’s photographer, and his staff proc- essed 13,681 prints, 488 black-and-white slides, 1,121 color slides, 1,508 black-and-white negatives, 175 sets of color-separation nega- tives, 345 color transparencies, 6 infrared and 2 ultraviolet photo- graphs during the fiscal year. AUDIT OF PRIVATE FUNDS OF THE GALLERY An audit of the private funds of the Gallery will be made for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1959, by Price Waterhouse & Co., public accountants, and the certificate of that company on its examination of the accounting records maintained for such funds will be for- warded to the Gallery. Respectfully submitted, Huntineton Cairns, Secretary. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the Library Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activ- ities of the Smithsonian library for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1959: Of the 52,669 publications received in the library, 2,706 were books and periodicals that could not be obtained in exchange. A special effort was made to acquire some of the much-needed reference ma- terials that could not be obtained in the past. Publications were ac- quired to fill in special subject areas where adequate source materials were missing. Exchange relations with learned societies and sci- entific establishments both in this country and abroad continued to provide their serials and monographs which comprise the backbone of the library’s collection. New exchanges arranged this year totaled 159, to be added to the vast number already established. Special re- quests for 2,359 publications were made to issuing societies and or- ganizations for back issues of publications needed for completing sets in our collections. Books and periodicals were acquired for the Canal Zone Biological Area and also for the Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Mass. Recommendations for the acquisition of materials are of great importance in enriching the collections. Many significant gifts also come to the library from interested individuals including members and friends of the Smithsonian staff. Gifts of special note included “Voices from the Flowery Kingdom,” from Mrs. Lucille Nott; 327 issues of philatelic journals from Alexander Halperson; 50 issues of the Connoisseur, from Fred J. P. Chitty ; 8 volumes on Indian dancing by Leila Row Dayal; “Grundzuge der zoologischen Mikropalion- tologie,” Band 1, by Vladmir Pokorny. Controlling the vast intake of publications each year requires the efforts of the entire staff in evaluating the materials for retention and in making them readily available for use. Lack of adequate space necessitates the daily sorting and shipping of all extraneous and dupli- cate publications to other agencies. Beginning July 1, 1958, all publications forwarded to the Library of Congress were sent by transfer instead of being specifically desig- nated for the Smithsonian Deposit, thus eliminating unnecessary recordkeeping on the part of both organizations. Publications sent to this organization totaled 20,558, many of which were continuations 220 SECRETARY’S REPORT pall of serials and monographs that have been received regularly in ex- change since their first date of publication. To the National Library of Medicine were sent 2,378 publications, and to other Government libraries 714 items. The catalog section cataloged and classified 4,082 books and pam- phlets, entered 24,933 periodicals, and filed 45,485 cards. In spite of being short staffed and having an increased acquisitions program, the efforts of the catalogers to organize and plan their work have kept the bulk of the material moving. Efficient library service depends on a, good catalog, and good cataloging practice is a basic requirement. The large number of uncataloged publications throughout the Institu- tion remains a major problem. The scientific and technical nature of these publications, many of which are in foreign languages, requires scholarly treatment in processing. The binding program continued to show vast improvements in the preservation and conservation of our valuable research materials. Through a waiver from the Government Printing Office, 8,800 volumes were bound or re-bound by a commercial binder under contract. A skilled bindery assistant repaired or hand-bound 1,851 volumes of materials not suitable to send toa binder. A special project is under- way to put call-number labels on all the library materials. This will facilitate the shelving and locating of books and periodicals by the staff and users as well. The program of continuous weeding and discarding of unused and duplicate materials is still in effect. A total of 8,901 books, pam- phlets, and periodicals was discarded. The library is frequently called upon to translate correspondence and miscellaneous items into English. Members of the catalog section translated 214 items and provided reference assistance or translations of obscure words and phrases. The class in scientific Russian, taught by David Ray, is still in progress. Demands on the staff of the reference and circulation section con- tinued to be heavy. It is difficult to measure the various services the library gives in making its resources available to those who wish to make use of them. During the year 12,360 loans were made, plus 9,374 volumes sent to the sectional libraries for semipermanent file. Since no estimate can be made of how many times books and periodi- cals circulate within a section, the exact number of times library ma- terials are consulted cannot be determined. There were 1,158 volumes lent to Government, college, and univer- sity libraries; and 3,853 volumes were borrowed from other libraries, chiefly the Library of Congress. 222 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Visitors to the library numbered 9,202 persons who consulted the reference books and periodicals in the main reading room. Visiting research scholars used the library’s facilities for checking and verify- ing references, and librarians and scientists from other countries came to acquaint themselves with the collections. The lbrary staff an- swered 20,799 reference questions, which in most cases required the consultation of many different publications. These queries are from individuals who either write, telephone, or come in person to the li- brary, and always it is rewarding to be able to provide them with the desired information or refer them to an authoritative source. Care of the collections includes the task of relieving crowding of the books and keeping them clean. The addition of 26 new cases in the stacks of the main library has provided additional shelf space for the growing accumulation. Vacuuming the books and washing the shelves are underway in this area, and routine cleaning schedules are in effect in other stack areas. In September 1958, the branch library for the Museum of History and Technology began operation. ‘This collection of books and jour- nals formerly served the staff in the Arts and Industries Building. The initial phase of the project of cleaning and discarding unused ma- terials has been completed. The specific task of making this into a working library is in progress with a shelf inventory started, a bind- ing and repairing program underway, the acquiring of necessary source and reference books and missing journals in process. This library will in the future supply source materials on the historical and technical development of this country. In spite of numerous handi- caps during the 9 months of operation, 3,498 reference questions were answered, 2,559 books were charged out, 999 volumes were sent to the bindery, and 1,042 persons who came to the library for service were assisted. It has been possible for the library to acquire some long-needed equipment. New microfilm reading machines and a book-copying ma- chine have increased the service and efficiency. Other items such as a new charge desk and catalog cases have improved the appearance of the library and the morale of the staff. The repainting of several of the rooms has enhanced the whole cleanup program. The value of these new improvements cannot be measured, but their total effect on individual performance is more than gratifying. Professional members of the staff attended the annual conventions of both the Special Libraries Association and the American Library Association, where they took advantage of the specialized activities that pertained to the functions of this library. SECRETARY'S REPORT 22a SUMMARIZED STATISTICS ACCESSIONS Volumes Total recorded volumes, 1959 Smithsonian Deposit at the Library of Congress_--- (*) 586, 722 Smithsonian main library (includes former office and MMLseumM libraries) x e9 oe hs Sees eee eA eee Tee nd 7, 421 323, 924 Astrophysical Observatory (includes Radiation and Organisins) so ese o-oo A Soe Se ee a 42 15, 078 Bureau of American Ethnology___---------------- 33 37, 749 INationalvArr Museumls 2a 20. See Sees ee 19 577 National Collection of Fine Arts___......--------- 19 14, 159 National: Zoologicaly Park. io-u 4 es. Jeet eens 69 4, 287 Day 9 Sie ae SD SS Se ee ee rp eS ee 7, 603 982, 596 *20,558 publications were forwarded by transfer to the Library of Congress without the Smithsonian Deposit stamp. Unbound volumes of periodicals and reprints and separates from serial publi- cations, of which there are many thousands, have not been included in these totals. EXCHANGES INewsexchangestarrang ed ss ee ee oe 159 Specially requested publications received___________________________-- 2, 359 CATALOGING Volumest Catalog eds as teas tae oe See a ele ae eae ea 4, 082 Catalogecards filed 222s fase ae ee ee Se be 45, 485 PERIODICALS Periodically parts! entered 2a] 26 see = ee ee Sa ae er eee 24, 933 CIRCULATION loanskor. bookstand) periodicals: 222222 5. 2 Se a te ee 21, 734 Circulation in sectional libraries is not counted except in the Division of Insects. BINDING AND REPAIR Molumesisent; to ithenbind eryas=2 2 Sees ae ee a sa eee bee es 8, 800 Volumes:repaired)inethelibrariy=s2 se Be ee eee 1, 851 Respectfully submitted. Rory E. Brancuarp, Librarian. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on Publications Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publi- cations of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for the year ended June 80, 1959: The publications of the Smithsonian Institution are issued partly from federally appropriated funds (Smithsonian Reports and publi- cations of the National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and the Astrophysical Observatory) and partly from private endow- ment funds (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, publications of the Freer Gallery of Art, and some special publications). The Insti- tution also edits and publishes under the auspices of the Freer Gallery of Art the series Ars Orientalis, which appears under the joint im- print of the University of Michigan and the Smithsonian Institution. The third volume in this series was in press at the close of the year. In addition, the Smithsonian publishes a guidebook, a picture pam- phlet, postcards and a postcard folder, a color-picture album, color slides, a filmstrip on Smithsonian exhibits, a coloring book for chil- dren, and popular publications on scientific and historical subjects related to its important exhibits and collections for sale to visitors. Through its publication program the Smithsonian endeavors to carry out its founder’s expressed desire for the diffusion of knowledge. During the year the Institution published 1 whole volume and 10 papers in the Miscellaneous Collections; 1 Annual Report of the Board of Regents and separates of 19 articles in the General Appen- dix; 1 Annual Report of the Secretary; 4 special publications; and reprints of 1 volume of Miscellaneous Collections and 1 special publication. The U.S. National Museum issued 1 Annual Report, 4 Bulletins, 18 Proceedings papers, and 2 special publications. The Bureau of American Ethnology issued one Annual Report and four Bulletins. The Astrophysical Observatory issued seven numbers in the series Smithsonian Contributions to Astrophysics. The National Collection of Fine Arts published three catalogs, and the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service, under the National Collection of Fine Arts, published one catalog. The Freer Gallery of Art issued one paper in its Occasional Papers series, and a revised edition of one pamphlet. 224 SECRETARY’S REPORT 225 DISTRIBUTION There were distributed 580,018 copies of publications and miscella- neous items. Publications: 34 Contributions to Knowledge, 23,886 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 8,725 Annual Report volumes and 22, 528 pamphlet copies of Report separates, 575 War Background Studies, 49,684 special publications, 93 reports of the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 52,700 publications of the National Museum, 27,721 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 28,170 publications of the National Collection of Fine Arts, 583 publications of the Freer Gallery of Art, 14,951 publications of the Astrophysical Observatory, 1,581 reports of the American Historical Association, and 1,775 publications not issued by the Smithsonian Institution. Miscellaneous items: 4 sets of North American Wild Flowers and 34 Wild Flower prints, 57 Pitcher Plant volumes, 44,230 guide books, 19,293 picture pamphlets, 211,260 postcards and postcard folders, 19,414 color slides, 49,660 information leaflets, and 15 New Museum of History and Technology pamphlets. There were also distributed 366 statuettes, 2,670 Viewmaster reels, and 5 filmstrips and 4 filmstrip records.! SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS In this series, under the immediate editorship of Ruth B. Mac- Manus, there were issued one paper in volume 119, two papers in volume 135, two papers in volume 136, whole volume 137, four papers in volume 138, and one paper in volume 189, as follows: Volume 119 No. 3. Mississippian fauna in northwestern Sonora, by William H. Easton, John H. Sanders, J. Brookes Knight, and Arthur K. Miller. 87 pp., 9 pls., 4 figs. (Publ. 4813.) Aug. 8, 1958. ($1.35.) Volume 135 No. 1. The customs and religion of the Ch’iang, by David Crockett Graham. 114 pp., 16 pls., 6 figs. (Publ. 4800.) Dec. 2, 1958. ($2.) No. 9. New American Paleozoic echinoids, by Porter M. Kier. 26 pp., 8 pls., 22 figs. (Publ. 4887.) Aug. 4,1958. (75 cents.) Volume 136 No. 1. A review of the middle and upper Hocene primates of North America, by ©. Lewis Gazin. 112 pp., 14 pls. (Publ. 4340.) July 7, 1958. ($1.75.) No. 2. The journals of Daniel Noble Johnson (1822-1863), United States Navy, edited by Mendel L. Peterson. 268 pp., 16 pls. (Publ. 4375.) Apr. 2, 1959. ($4.) 1 Additional copies of the Institution’s filmstrip and record, “Let’s Visit the Smithsonian,” were distributed through the Society for Visual Hducation, Chicago, Ml. 226 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Volume 137 Studies in invertebrate morphology. Published in honor of Dr. Robert Evans Snodgrass on the occasion of his 84th birthday, July 5, 1959. 18 articles by various authors. 416 pp., 49 pls., 149 figs. (Publ. 4850.) [June 19] 1959. ($7.50.) Volume 138 No. 1. Pueblo del Arroyo, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, by Neil M. Judd. 222 pp., 55 pls., 45 figs. (Publ. 4846.) June 26,1959. ($4.50.) No. 2. Evolution of arthropod mechanisms, by R. E. Snodgrass. 177 pp., 24 figs. (Publ. 4847.) Nov. 28, 1958. (85 cents.) No. 3. Long-range weather forecasting, by C. G. Abbot. 19 pp., 11 figs. (Publ. 4352.) Feb. 16, 1959. (30 cents.) No. 4. Birds of the Pleistocence in North America, by Alexander Wetmore. 24 pp. (Publ. 4853.) Jan. 15, 1959. (385 cents.) Volume 139 No. 1. The oldest known reptile, Hosawravus copei Williston, by Frank E. Pea- body. 14 pp., 1 pl., 3 figs. (Publ. 4377.) May 7, 1959. (50 cents.) SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS REPORT FOR 1957 The complete volume of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1957 was received from the printer on October 10, 1958: Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ended June 30, 1957. x-+499 pp., 74 plis., 32 figs. (Publ. 4314.) The general appendix contained the following papers (Publ. 4815- 4333) : Science, technology, and society, by L. R. Hafstad. United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1807-1957, by Elliott B. Roberts. Cosmie rays from the sun, by Thomas Gold. Meteors, by Fred L. Whipple. The development of the planetarium in the United States, by Joseph Miles Chamberlain. The development of radio astronomy, by Gerald S. Hawkins. Jet streams, by R. Lee. Pollen and spores and their use in geology, by Estella B. Leopold and Richard A. Seott. The influence of man on soil fertility, by G. V. Jacks. The land and people of the Guajira Peninsula, by Raymond E. Crist. The nature of viruses, cancer, genes, and life, by Wendell M. Stanley. Mystery of the red tide, by F. G. Walton Smith. The return of the vanishing musk oxen, by Hartley H. T. Jackson. Bamboo in the economy of Oriental peoples, by F. A. McClure. Mechanizing the cotton harvest, by James H. Street. Aniline dyes—their impact on biology and medicine, by Morris C. Leikind. Causes and consequences of salt consumption, by Hans Kaunitz. Roman garland sarcophagi from the quarries of Proconnesus (Marmara), by J. B. Ward Perkins. Stone age skull surgery, by T. D. Stewart. SECRETARY’S REPORT 227 REPORT FOR 1958 The Report of the Secretary, which will form part of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents to Congress, was issued January 16, 1959: Report of the Secretary and financial report of the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents for the year ended June 30, 1958. x-+232 pp., 14 pls., 1 chart. (Publ. 4845.) SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS The gown of Mrs. Dwight D. Hisenhower, by Margaret Brown Klapthor. Sup- plement to “The Dresses of the First Ladies of the White House,” Publ. 4060. 4 pp.,2 pis. [Sept. 26] 1958. (50 cents.) Anthropology as a career, by William C. Sturtevant. 18 pp. (Publ. 4348.) July 25, 1958. (20 cents.) List of Smithsonian publications available for distribution June 380, 1958, com- piled by Hileen M. McCarthy. 54 pp. (Publ. 4844.) [Oct. 14] 1958. First book of grasses, by Agnes Chase. Hd. 3, with revisions and additions of color plate and foreword by Leonard Carmichael. xix-+127 pp., 1 pl., 94 figs. (Spee. Publ. 4351.) [Feb. 12] 1959. ($3.) REPRINTS Smithsonian Meteorological Tables, Sixth Revised Edition, prepared by Robert J. List. First reprint. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 114, Publ. 4014. xi+527 pp. [July 24] 1958. ($4.) Brief Guide to the Smithsonian Institution. 1958 rev. ed. Spec. Publ. 82 pp., illus. [Nov. 10] 1958. (25 cents.) PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM The editorial work of the National Museum continued during the year under the immediate direction of John S. Lea, assistant chief of the division. The following publications were issued : REPORT The United States National Museum annual report for the year ended June 30, 1958. Pp. iv+150, illus. Jan. 16, 1959. BULLETINS 193. Supplement 1. Publications of the United States National Museum, Janu- ary 1947-June 1958. Pp. iii+16. Oct. 8, 1958. 212. Checklist of the millipeds of North America, by Ralph V. Chamberlin and Richard L. Hoffman. Pp. iii+236. Sept. 26, 1958. 214. Review of the parrotfishes, family Scaridae, by Leonard P. Schultz. Pp. v+143, 31 figs., 27 pls. Sept. 16, 1958. 216. Ichneumon-flies of America north of Mexico: 1. Subfamily Metopiinae, by Henry and Marjorie Townes. Pp. ix+318, 196 figs. Mar. 6, 1959. PROCEEDINGS Volume 106 Title page, table of contents, and index. Pp. i—vii, 589-615. June 8, 1959. Volume 107 Title page, table of contents, and index. Pp. i-v, 651-671. May 29, 1959. 228 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Volume 108 No. 3395. A review of some galerucine beetles with excised middle tibiae in the male, by Doris H. Blake. Pp. 59-101, 6 figs. July 16, 1958. No. 3398. A review of the copepod genus Ridgewayia (Calanoida) with descrip- tions of new species from the Dry Tortugas, Florida, by Mildred Stratton Wilson. Pp. 187-179, 87 figs. Aug. 11, 1958. No. 3399. Revision of the milliped genus Pachydesmus (Polydesmida: Xysto- desmidae), by Richard L. Hoffman. Pp. 181-218, 12 figs. Aug. 20, 1958. No. 3400. A revision of the eels of the genus Conger with descriptions of four new species, by Robert H. Kanazawa. Pp. 219-267, 7 figs., 4 pls. Oct. 6, 1958. No. 8401. Three North American Cretaceous fishes, by David H. Dunkle. Pp. 269-277, 3 pls. Oct. 21, 1958. No. 3402. Taxonomy and nomenclature of three species of Lonchura (Aves: Estrildinae), by Kenneth C. Parkes. Pp. 279-293, 1 fig. Oct. 21, 1958. No. 3408. Rhizocephala of the family Peltogastridae parasitic on West Indian species of Galatheidae, by Hdward G. Reinhard. Pp. 295-307, fig. 4, 1 pl. Nov. 20, 1958. No. 3404. Advances in our knowledge of the honey-guides, by Herbert Fried- mann. Pp. 309-3820. Oct. 21, 1958. No. 3405. Three new serranid fishes, genus Pikea, from the western Atlantic, by Leonard P. Schultz. Pp. 821-329, 2 figs. Nov. 17, 1958. No. 3406. The status of the lizard Cnemidophorus perplerus Baird and Girard (Teiidae), by T. Paul Maslin, Richard G. Beidleman, and Charles H. Lowe, Jr. Pp. 331-345. Dec. 31, 1958. No. 3407. Synopsis of the species of agromyzid leaf miners described from North America (Diptera), by Kenneth E. Frick. Pp. 347-465, 170 figs. Mar. 5, 1959. No. 3409. Scarab beetles of the genus Bothynus in the United States (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), by O. L. Cartwright. Pp. 515-541, 6 figs. Mar. 10, 1959. No. 3410. A further study of Micronesian polyclad flatworms, by Libby H. Hyman. Pp. 543-597, 17 figs. Mar. 6, 1959. Volume 109 No. 3411. A revision of the milliped genus Brachoria (Polydesmida: Xystodes- midae), by William T. Keeton. Pp. 1-58, 11 figs. Apr. 14, 1959. No. 3413. Notes on Aradidae in the U.S. National Museum (Hemiptera), I. Sub- family Calisiinae, by Nicholas A. Kormilev. Pp. 209-222, 18 figs. Apr. 20, 1959. No. 3414. Flies of the genus Odinia in the Western Hemisphere (Diptera: Odiniidae), by Curtis W. Sabrosky. Pp. 223-236, 1 pl. May 29, 1959. SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS A handbook for employees. iii+-40 pp., 27 figs. Dec. 24, 1958. Guard manual and regulations for the guard force. [8]+75 pp. June 1958. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY The editorial work of the Bureau continued under the immediate direction of Mrs. Eloise B. Edelen. The following publications were issued : ANNUAL REPORT Seventy-fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1957-1958. 11+36 pp., 5 pls. 1959. SECRETARY’S REPORT 229 BULLETINS Bulletin 168. The Native Brotherhoods: Modern intertribal organizations on the Northwest coast, by Philip Drucker. iv+194 pp. October 1958. Bulletin 169. River Basin Surveys Papers Nos. 9-14. ix+392 pp., 73 pls., 13 figs., 9 maps. December 1958. No. 9. Archeological investigations in the Heart Butte Reservoir area, North Dakota, by Paul L. Cooper. No. 10. Archeological investigations at the Tuttle Creek Dam, Kansas, by Robert B. Cumming, Jr. No. 11. The Spain site (391.M301), a winter village in Fort Randall Reser- voir, South Dakota, by Carlyle 8. Smith and Roger T. Grange, Jr. No. 12. The Wilbanks site (9CK—5), Georgia, by William H. Sears. No. 18. Historic sites in and around the Jim Woodruff Reservoir area, Florida—Georgia, by Mark F.. Boyd. No. 14. Six sites near the Chattahoochee River in the Jim Woodruff Reser- voir area, Florida, by Ripley P. Bullen. Bulletin 170. Excavations at La Venta, Tabasco, 1955, by Philip Drucker, Rob- ert F. Heizer, and Robert J. Squier. With appendixes by Jonas EH. Gullberg, Garniss H. Curtis, and A. Starker Leopold. viii+312 pp., 63 pls., 82 figs. March 1959. Bulletin 171. The North Alaskan Hskimo: A study in ecology and society, by Robert F. Spencer. vi-+490 pp., 9 pls., 2 figs.,4 maps. May 1959. PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY The editorial work of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory continued under the immediate direction of Ernest E. Biebighauser. The year’s publications are as follows: SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ASTROPHYSICS Volume 2 No. 11. The statistics of meteors in the earth’s atmosphere, by Gerald S. Hawkins and Richard B. Southworth. Pp. 349-364, 5 figs. Aug. 5, 1958. No. 12. Granulation and oscillations of the solar atmosphere, by Charles Whitney. Pp. 365-376, 2 figs. July 29, 1958. No. 13. Optical properties of Saturn’s rings: I. Transmission, by Allan F. Cook, II, and Fred A. Franklin. Pp. 377-383, 3 figs. Nov. 14, 1958. Volume $ No. 1. The regression of the node of the quadrantids, by Gerald S. Hawkins and Richard B. Southworth. Pp. 1-5, 2 figs. Oct. 1, 1958. No. 2. Catalogs of meteor radiants, by Gerald S. Hawkins. Pp. 7-8, 3 figs. Sept. 26, 1958. No. 3. Papers on the solar constant: “The Constancy of the Solar Constant,” by Theodore E. Sterne and Nannielou Dieter, 1 fig.; “On Sterne and Dieter’s paper, ‘The Constancy of the Solar Constant,’” by C. G. Abbot, 9 figs.; and “The solar constant,” by L. B. Aldrich and W. H. Hoover. Pp. 9-24. Dec. 24, 1958. No. 4. Some sunspot and flare statistics, by Barbara Bell and Harold Glazer. Pp. 25-38, 3 figs. May 18, 1959. No. 5. The Doppler widths of solar absorption lines, by Barbara Bell and Alan Meltzer. Pp. 39-46. May 13, 1959. 230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS Profiles of the time of James Monroe, 1758-1958. 13 pp., 1 pl. (Publ. 4348.) [Oct. 24] 1958. Henry Ward Ranger centennial exhibition, 1858-1958. 30 pp., 1 pl. (Publ. 4349.) [Dec. 1] 1958. Turn-of-the-century paintings from the William T. Evans collection. 8 pp. [Apr. 23] 1959. Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibitions, 1959-1960 catalog. 40 pp. PUBLICATIONS OF THE FREER GALLERY OF ART The lohans and a bridge to heaven, by Wén Fong. Occas. Pap., vol. 3, No. 1, 64 pp., 18 pls., 1 fig. (Publ. 4305.) [Aug. 21] 1958. ($1.00.) The Freer Gallery of Art of the Smithsonian Institution. 16 pp., 8 pls., 3 figs. Rev. ed. 1958. REPORTS OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION The annual reports of the American Historical Association are transmitted by the association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and are by him communicated to Congress, as provided in the act of incorporation of the association. No reports were issued during the year. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The manuscript of the 60th Annual Report of the National Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, was transmitted to Congress, in accordance with law, on January 7, 1959. OTHER ACTIVITIES During the year the Institution acquired, through a generous gift of the author, the remaining stock of the book “Composition of Scien- tific Words,” by Dr. Roland W. Brown, former geologist of the U.S. Geological Survey. The volume, 882 pages in size, is subtitled “A Manual of Methods and a Lexicon of Materials for the Practice of Logotechnics.” Published by the author in 1956, it is now being dis- tributed by the Smithsonian. The chief of the division continued to represent the Smithsonian Institution on the board of directors of the Greater Washington Edu- cational Television Association, Inc., of which the Institution is a member. Respectfully submitted. Paut H. Oruser, Chief, Editorial and Publications Division. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Other Activities LECTURES In 1931 the Institution received a bequest from James Arthur, of New York City, a part of the income from which was to be used to endow an annual lecture on some aspect of the sun. The 25th Arthur lecture was delivered in the auditorium of the Natural His- tory Building on the evening of October 23, 1958, by Dr. Leo Goldberg, director of the Observatory of the University of Michigan. This illustrated lecture, on the subject “Astronomy from Artificial Satel- lites,” will be published in full in the general appendix of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for 1959. Dr. Homer A. Thompson, professor of classical archeology, Insti- tute for Advanced Study, Princeton, N.J., delivered a lecture on “Athenian Twilight” in the auditorium of the Natural History Build- ing on the evening of December 2, 1958. This was sponsored jointly by the Smithsonian Institution and the Archaeological Institute of America. Under the joint sponsorship of the Smithsonian Institution, the Anthropological Society of Washington, and the Netherland-America Foundation, Dr. J. Victor de Bruyn, adviser to the Netherlands Gov- ernment on New Guinea affairs, lectured on “New Guinea Papuans Today and Tomorrow,” on March 4, 1959, in the Natural History Building auditorium. Grover Loening, aeronautical engineer and manufacturer and mem- ber of the advisory board of the National Air Museum, presented a lecture on “Lessons from the History of Flight” in the auditorium of the Natural History Building on May 18, 1959. This lecture is to be published in the general appendix of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for 1959. H. Alan Lloyd, F.S.A., F.B.H.1., M.B.E., gave a lecture on “Pre- Renaissance Clocks and Their Influence” on May 20, 1959, in the auditorium of the Freer Gallery of Art, under the joint sponsorship of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors. Several lectures were also sponsored by the Freer Gallery of Art and the National Gallery of Art. These are listed in the reports of these bureaus. 231 536608—60——_16 232 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 SMITHSONIAN MUSEUM SERVICE The Smithsonian Museum Service was established on October 21, 1958. G. Carroll Lindsay was appointed acting curator of the Service on the same date. He had served as assistant curator of enthnology from 1956 to 1957 and as associate curator of cultural history since 1957. The Museum Service, operating under the Office of the Secretary, acts to coordinate the extension of the museum activities of the Insti- tution with particular attention to the historic development of these activities and their relationship to the development of the entire Insti- tution from its founding to the present time. The activity of the Mu- seum Service includes the administration of Smithsonian cooperation with the volunteer docents of the Junior League of Washington, D.C. A more complete report of this activity for the 1958-59 season is carried in the report of the U.S. National Museum. The Museum Service also provided assistance to professional and subprofessional individuals and groups visiting the museums of the Institution. Arrangements were made through the Museum Service for Smithsonian participation in the Joint Workshop on Use of Com- munity Resources sponsored by the University of Maryland and George Washington University. Through the facilities of this work- shop a 5-day program outlining the history of the Institution and the work of the various Smithsonian museum and research bureaus was presented to 41 graduate students from the participating universities. Assistance was also rendered to other college and university groups visiting the Institution, and to individuals from the United States and abroad, visiting or planning to visit the Smithsonian in a profes- sional capacity. The Museum Service carried out the arrangements for various Smithsonian public functions and events, including lectures and the opening of the new halls and exhibits. Mailing lists for invitations to these functions and events of the Institution were enlarged and reorganized, and the Smithsonian Calendar of Events, a monthly list- ing of exhibit openings, lectures, and other special events of the Institution, was prepared and distributed. BIO-SCIENCES INFORMATION EXCHANGE The Bio-Sciences Information Exchange, an agency operated under the Smithsonian Institution but financed by other Government agen- cles, is a clearinghouse for research in the life sciences. Abstracts of current research are registered by investigators engaged in biological, medical, and psychological research and in limited as- pects of research in the social sciences. Through an extensive system of subject indexing, these abstracts are provided upon request and SECRETARY'S REPORT Doo without charge to researchers in research institutions. Through this simple mechanism, the Exchange maintains a communication system which precedes publication and prevents unknowing duplication. For granting agencies and properly constituted committees it prepares extensive surveys of research in broad areas. Owing to the worldwide interest in scientific information and to the increased funds for research in the bio-sciences, the Exchange has been authorized to install an electronic computer. During the year arrangements for the purchase of the machine and initial plans for its operation have been completed. The Department of Defense has joined the other Federal agencies supporting the Exchange and has appointed Dr. Orr E. Reynolds, di- rector, Office of Science, Office of the Director of Research and Engineering, as its representative on the governing board. AVIATION EDUCATION INSTITUTE The Institution cooperated with American University in conducting the First Aviation Education Institute for Science Teachers at the National Air Museum during the period July 1 to August 8, 1958. The project was made possible by a grant from the Link Foundation. Five teachers from the Washington, D.C., area completed the 6-week course and received university credits. The Aviation Education Institute is conducted at the Smithsonian’s National Air Museum because of the unique facilities there, which include the National Aeronautical Col- lections, a wealth of historical information in the Museum’s library and reference files, and the research guidance offered by Director Philip S. Hopkins and his curatorial staff. Report of the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution For the Year Ended June 30, 1959 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following re- port in relation to the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, together with a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the Govern- ment bureaus in the administrative charge of the Institution. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PARENT FUND The original bequest of James Smithson was £104,960 8s 6d-— $508,318.46. Refunds of money expended in prosecution of the claim, freight, insurance, and other incidental expenses, together with pay- ment into the fund of the sum of £5,015, which had been withheld during the lifetime of Madame de Ja Batut, brought the fund to the amount of $550,000. The gift of James Smithson was “lent to the United States Treas- ury, at 6 per centum per annum interest” (20 USC. 54) and by the Act of March 12, 1894 (20 USC. 55) the Secretary of the Treasury was “authorized to receive into the Treasury, on the same terms as the original bequest of James Smithson, such sums as the Regents may, from time to time see fit to deposit, not exceeding, with the original bequest the sum of $1,000,000.” The maximum of $1,000,000 which the Smithsonian Institution was authorized to deposit in the Treasury of the United States was reached on January 11, 1917, by the deposit of $2,000. Under the above authority the amounts shown below are deposited in the United States Treasury and draw 6 percent interest: Unrestricted funds Income James! (Smithson sets 2 ee Fe ee Re eee $727, 640 $48, 658. 40 PAY CTV ete eee ee ee Ln be VO oe Bh ee Oe eas LE 14, 000 840. 00 abel) yosie he Se ee SAS Re Li ae EL A Pee 500 30. 00 EF STE Or a a ee ES eS Ey SE ee ae ae ey 2, 500 150. 00 Eodsking: t(general)) cesses a oe ee Ve ae 116, 000 6, 960. 00 POOL yr a a cae te ee 2 ee Be Ae 26, 670 1, 600. 20 IER EY Gi ae ae ye ew Be Oe 590 35. 40 SEES OW thay 0 UN a A a a Ee kg aes Nar testa A a 1, 100 66. 00 otal (22202 ee en ee ee eee 889,000 53,340.00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 235 Restricted funds Income Hodgkins (specitic) ae sa sare et ere ers $100, 000 $6, 000. 00 RNG hee RE Ss ee ee ae Se a oe eee 11, 000 660. 00 JNO) ee ee eS eee eee 111, 000 6, 660. 00 Grand total) —-j22-o 2 aoe eee eee 1, 000, 000 ~—-60, 000. 00 In addition to the $1,000,000 deposited in the Treasury of the United States there has been accumulated from income and bequests the sum of $3,658,636.78 which has been invested and is carried on the books of the Institution as the Consolidated Fund, a policy approved by the Regents at their meeting on December 14, 1916. CONSOLIDATED FUND (Income for the unrestricted use of the Institution) Fund Investment Income 1959 1959 AN) ONES UN in Uy Yee) ES pe aaa te pee oe $20, 443. 51 $1, 036. 06 MAW Ony a EO Denis. ANU e Wy Gide sana nota senna naan wa a ean nen eo ne eee 54, 200. 83 2, 746. 89 Gifts) royalties ;sainion)saloof securities] == sass nn eee ee eee 378, 877. 09 19, 201. 73 Hachenberg,. GQeorse k. jands@arolino@==- = 2222s ees ee ee 5, 518. 63 279. 71 "Hamilton; James 2222--sossno2seet eens ates sesso ssese ea eean onsen e 553. 91 28. 07 Hart. GQustavlsiie----o:osnncsncsscsescasee te ssass sence tee ee ease ee eee 668. 36 17. 16 Fenny) OC arolinete se e= ate naar ea co ee oe ea eee eee ee eee 1, 659. 55 84. 12 ET enryAvOseDh ang: HarrietwAcss. foes. antennae eee nn eee ee 67, 265. 84 3, 409. 04 sHodekins thomas) Ga (general) ase sees a ee es ee ee ee ne ee 41, 567. 14 2, 106. 63 IVIOTTO WARD WiBhtRW Geec esc ne ee ee eee ee eee eee 106, 110. 34 5, 377. 69 Olinsted, /HelenyAtr 225 odsos Se tse tN ees SESS tee ONS Renee SCE A ee aoe 1, 099. 40 55. 73 SPOOL gC yale tan ds GQEOTLONW eee eee ee eee ee eee one 223, 330. 00 11, 207. 69 Porters on hype eters sete ene eee ee eee a ee ree Unde es BRE Tete Rive 392, 988. 77 19, 916. 85 eIRNeeSe Willian TONOSs=ss2 <24- eases oee ene ene ae soe ae ee nena eee 649. 21 32. 91 SS ATONG se CHCONI El etn s ae = Me ee ee Meera a ne oe ee ee ee ee P2218 5 61. 92 SSINGHSONMM AMOS: scone e ee kot a con Lee ee tae. cee e een eek on eet eee eee 1, 675, 21 84. 90 Witherspoon ino mastA@e senna = Seen ne eames sane wanes eee es aan saan 177, 082. 45 8, 974. 62 Potala ae ae Sosa oe eee E SER SESSLER SDE ES Sts Soweeee eles $1, 474, 911. 75 $74, 621. 72 *In addition to funds deposited in the United States Treasury. CONSOLIDATED FUND (Income restricted to specific use) Fund Investment Income 1959 1959 Abbott, William L., for investigations in biology.---..----------.----------- $148, 272. 84 $7, 254. 54 Arthur, James, for investigations and study of the sun and annual lecture O31) STNG eee ce ee ee i ne ee eee = aa ee ee ee ee ea 54, 878. 86 2, 781. 31 Bacon, Virginia Purdy, for traveling scholarship to investigate fauna of counties oLhberbhanithesWnitediStatese-so--- se oe ae see ee ae ee ee 68, 748. 24 3, 484. 16 Baird, Lucy H., for creating a memorial to Secretary Baird__-.-.------------ 33, 038. 26 1, 674. 39 Barney, Alice Pike, for collection of paintings and pastels and for encourage- mentiotAimericaniartistic.endeavoris.-2]e-=--=5=* 22— oe oe coe seneteeeee 39, 356. 91 1, 994. 65 Barstow, Frederick D., for purchase of animals for Zoological Park___----_--- 1, 371. 87 69. 51 236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 CONSOLIDATED FUND—Continued Fund Investment Income 1959 1959 Canfield Collection, for increase and care of the Canfield collection of minerals_}| $52, 482. 58 $2, 659. 86 Casey, Thomas L., for maintenance of the Casey collection and promotion of researchesirelating to). Cole Mien as--—— ese a sane eee ann ae eee 17, 199. 81 871.72 Chamberlain, Francis Lea, for increase and promotion of Isaac Lea collection Oligems/sandimolluskewe= sae seen ane en a eee eens eee eee 38, 641. 81 1, 958. 36 Dykes, Charles, for support in financial research._------.-------------------- 59, 084. 00 2, 994. 10 Eickemeyer, Florence Brevoort, for preservation and exhibition of the photo- graphic collection of Rudolph Eickemeyer, Jr--.--------------------------- 14, 915. 03 755. 93 Hanson, Martin Gustav and Caroline Runice, for some scientific work of the Institution, preferably in chemistry or medicine_----.--.------------------ 12, 198. 67 618. 21 Higbee, Harry, Memorial Fund, for general use of the Institution after the Deriodoftensyearsirom date ofrift (957) pessaneeeseeee econ tea eee 763. 94 36. 81 Hillyer, Virgil, for increase and eare of Virgil Hillyer collection of lighting CO) [1h spe ee Se ene ee BR a ee 9, 018. 34 457. 04 Hitchcock, Albert S., for care of the Hitchcock Agrostological Library_---.--- 2, 165. 26 109. 75 Hrdliéka, Ale§ and Marie, to further researches in physical anthropology and publicationtiniconnectionstherewithe= ses =sae == an a eae 59, 259. 98 2, 858. 46 Hughes Bruce, tofoundeuphes'aleoves-------2------ss=-eneaae ana e noone 26, 265. 73 1, 331. 15 Loeb, Morris, for furtherance of knowledge in the exact sciences-_------------ 119, 591. 06 6, 060. 94 Long, Annette and Edith C., for upkeep and preservation of Long collection oliembroideries;laces,,and textiles= 2-2--222-2. 225-2 25-2 (ee oe 745. 07 37. 74 Maxwell, Mary E., for care and exhibition of Maxwell collection__.-_-.------ 26, 914. 61 1, 364. 06 Myer, Catherine Walden, for purchase of first-class works of art for use and benefit of the National Collection of Fine Arts....-----------.------------- 27, 717. 08 1, 404. 72 Nelson, Edward W., for support of biological studies_-.--------------------- 30, 515. 84 1, 546. 55 Noyes, Frank B., for use in connection with the collection of dolls placed in the U.S. National Museum through the interest of Mr. and Mrs. Noyes-------- 1, 318. 33 66. 81 Pell, Cornelia Livingston, for maintenance of Alfred Duane Pell collection--- 10, 171. 36 515. 48 Petrocelli, Joseph, for the care of the Petrocelli collection of photographic prints and for the enlargement and development of the section of photog- Taphyotihe Wes wNeational wVitiseumn ie ea oo eee nee en eee ene eae 10, 172. 28 346. 62 Rathbun, Richard, for use of division of U.S. National Museum containing @rustaced. - 42 =. £2 Sees a wo ee sw sacs ccdsewsscescccensae ene scscecee 14, 594. 68 739. 66 *Reid, Addison T., for founding chair in biology, in memory of Asher Tunis-_- 24, 468. 96 1, 237. 04 Roebling Collection, for care, improvement, and increase of Roebling collec- Gloniof minerals*. 22523. Bess soso se sew ose aes on sae ee sess eaesesessee 165, 608. 24 8, 393. 11 Rooebling:SolartResearch’s. 2-2. 2-2 5.=s.ncssnses5-ose55-asesseesascelessesse- 31, 633. 91 1, 982. 79 Rollins, Miriam and William, for investigations in physics and chemistry - -- 180, 655. 59 8, 929, 44 Smithsonianvemployeessrotirements--- ==. s-2 a oe eee ne eee eae 33, 368. 40 1, 722. 74 Springer, Frank, for care and increase of the Springer collection and library -- 24, 607. 44 1, 247, 14 Strong, Julia D., for benefit of the National Collection of Fine Arts__------_- 13, 719. 89 695. 31 Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, for development of geological and paleontological studies and publishing results of same---_------------------ 657, 407. 55 33, 444. 26 Walcott. Mary) Vaux forpublicationsin botany=--------=----s----2s---——— 79, 429. 98 4, 025. 53 Voungery HelenWalcott, held in trustisspes see ee oe eee enone 97, 121. 02 4, 692. 96 Zerbee, Frances Brincklé, for endowment of aquaria_.-------_.-------------- 1, 301. 61 65. 98 Ota ateecacaccscwes ec sc ae a cte tees Sessa secs cbeassecccccaseaseseces $2, 188, 725. 03 $110, 428. 83 *In addition to funds deposited in the United States Treasury. FREER GALLERY OF ART FUND Early in 1906, by deed of gift, Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, gave to the Institution his collection of Chinese and other Oriental objects of art, as well as paintings, etchings, and other works of art by Whistler, Thayer, Dewing, and other artists. Later he also gave funds for construction of a building to house the collection, and REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 237 finally in his will, probated November 6, 1919, he provided stocks and securities to the estimated value of $1,958,591.42, as an endowment fund for the operation of the Gallery. The fund now amounts to $8,902,456.42. SUMMARY OF ENDOWMENTS Invested endowment for general purposes_____________-_-_____ $2, 294, 725. 03 Invested endowment for specific purposes other than Freer en- GOWMCIG Ss Sh a ee ee ee eee 2, 363, 911. 75 Total invested endowment other than Freer__-________~ 4, 658, 636. T8 Freer invested endowment for specific purposes______.-________ 8, 902, 456. 42 Total invested endowment for all purposes____________ 138, 561, 093. 20 CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS Deposited in the U.S. Treasury at 6 percent per annum, as au- thorized in the U.S. Revised Statutes, sec. 5591______________ $1, 000, 000. 00 Investments other than Freer endowment (cost or market value at date acquired) : ES OT Se ae oe ee eet eae eee $1, 498, 643. 09 Stocks po 22 oe Seok BE eA Oe 2, 142, 849. 59 Real estate and mortgages_____________ 5, 756. 00 Uninvested capitala = 22222 ee 11, 388. 10 (a 3, 658, 636. 78 Total investments other than Freer endowment_______ 4, 658, 636. 78 Investments of Freer endowment (cost or market value at date acquired) : Bonds 22 2 2). Senne ey ke ee eee ees $5, 258. 223. 18 STOCKS fete ete a oe es ee ee ea ee ee 3, 642, 181. 72 Uninvested) capital==—— 2, 051. 52 a 8, 902, 456. 42 Totalpinvestments= 52 ee ee a ee hee eee 13, 561, 093. 20 ASSETS Cash: United States Treasury cur- rent accounte-—--2=--- = $1, 317, 923. 50 In banks and on hand_____- 318, 988. 41 1, 631, 861. 91 Less uninvested endowment SUTTA Serer Cee She wee a 13, 489. 62 $1, 618, 422. 29 raveloand Other advancese = as eee 4, 426. 77 Cash invested (U.S. Treasury notes) _-------__- 1, 328, 878. 18 —_—_____—__—_——_ $2, 951, 727. 24 238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 ASSETS—Continued Investments—at book value: Endowment funds: Freer Gallery of Art: Stocks and bonds___---~ $8, 900, 404. 90 Uninvested cash____----- 2, 051. 52 ——__—_—__—_———__ $8, 902, 456. 42 Investments at book value other than Freer: Stocks and bonds (Con- solidated Fund) —------ 3, 548, 261. 44 Uninvested cash___-----~- 11, 388. 10 Special deposit in U.S. Treasury at 6 percent interest) 22 se 2 ee 1, 000, 000. 00 Other stocks and bonds__ 98, 231. 24 Real estate and mort- PACCSa oe aoe ee eee 5, 756. 00 —_____———-_. 4, 658, 636. 78 $13, 561, 093. 20 16, 512, 820. 44 UNEXPENDED FUNDS AND ENDOWMENTS Unexpended funds: Income from Freer Gallery of Art endowment___-__--_-___- Income from other endowments: Restricted: 2==- =e aaeee bie Se ket, $442, 629. 88 General =o 22. 2 ee ee ee ee a 467, 271. 34 Endowment funds: Freer Gallery of Art__---- $8, 902, 456. 42 Other: Restrictedt=- 2222-22 -o= 2, 294, 725. 03 Generalin 3s et oe 2, 363, 911. 75 FIO tal sa eS pe a he Le a ee $568, 658. 87 909, 901. 22 1, 473, 167. 15 2, 951, 727. 24 13, 561, 093. 20 16, 512, 820. 44 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 239 CASH BALANCES, RECEIPTS, AND DISBURSEMENTS DURING FISCAL YEAR 19591 Restricted funds Unre- stricted Gifts and Total funds grants General Freer RECEIPTS: Income from investments: HTeeltUn dass sata sseaneea ee saree |e oae eee $388;886244"|s22222=-S2e8| Stee: ae $388, 886. 44 Consolidated ifund==2=222 == $965807532)|2eane ese ence ST4AN6 7700) |Peeee een ee 171, 495. 22 LeanitosUesnureasubyensesseeeoe Gx660200) |2222ea sere sees 53340; 000). e822 60, 000. 00 Real estate and mortgages__--_--- 926.78) |scssskaseeeese||Sesteasccss =| VIE 326. 7: Special funds—stocks and bonds__ 4° O50 06" | hoeastee eee 34; 484537) eoss Se 39, 385. 33 Total income from investments_-_| 108, 755. 06 388,886.44 | 162,452.27 |--..2-==----=- 660, 093. 77 publications#=-- 222s oe see se eeeee 2, 002. 13 10, 887.09 | 75,376, 24 $912. 70 89, 178. 16 Researchiprant Incomes esses anne een ee AONSCds aes ease eee eee 46, 883. 38 Special gifts and fees: Gifts and contributions__.____-.-- 10, 120. 00 5, 000. 00 222505 "eos: se eee 15, 342. 05 Special service fees_-..------------ 174. 71 101.04 | 14, 413. 55 105, 180. 29 119, 869. 59 Refund hadi vancess 22s saaee eas | Soe e ere es |e ee Se 6318500) Roveees seas 6, 318. 00 Employees’ withholdings (met)__|--------.-_-]------_-..--_- §94018 so soees es osnee 594. 18 Total special gifts and fees___-_-_- 10, 294. 71 5, 101. 04 21, 547. 78 105, 180. 29 142, 128. 82 Reinvestment (required by provi- sion of donor) sesso ee eee UAE fe| Bae ees Zp 1B5 47 Hoes Sa 10, 140. 54 Giftstandicrant sistas Sal ews ee ML Se A SE ee ene 2, 668, 368.36 | 2, 668, 368. 35 Motaliincomesssssssssese see see ea 129, 006. 97 404, 874. 57 | 308, 445. 14 | 2,774, 461.35 | 3, 616, 788. 03 Sales of securities: Endowment funds: Hreorftind ssn mr ouee sae [ante eke 8 QEOTT BGA 310i eee ave is Sal eae ee 2, 217, 664. 19 Consolidatedifundl2223252s255—" 321900575) |2sss—c 2 oe ee 176627 54onlecccesans ate 497, 528. 20 Other stocks and bonds-_-_--_---_- 20NO22026rsaets = ee ce Nal 2 eu al ee ee ee 25, 822. 26 Total endowment funds sales_--_- 347, 723. 01 | 2,217, 664.19 | 175,627.45 |-..---.-2._.__ 2, 741, 014. 65 Investment of current fundsin U.S. Government#bonds2-ss 2222 Se Ae. Posen eda eee 1905000)00) /2-2e. ae 190, 000. 00 Motalirecelptst= =o. s=s---se2- ee eee s- 476, 729.98 | 2,622, 538.76 | 674, 072.59 | 2,774, 461. 35 | 6, 547, 802. 68 DISBURSEMENTS: Ad ministravive|salariess=22--2-sesos|= seen SE BORED IP 181; S400S0N =aaeeseeeeeeee 122, 204. 25 Other)salariesssss22 252 2sessezeeeeses 7, 812. 66 133,888: 80)|s-2=-s-2.c22]2-2521 20. s- 141, 701. 46 Motalisalaricss=2*sston2s) 21 men ee 7, 812. 66 1685249525)1) +87,843:80) |2-22- ee 268, 905. 71 Purchases for collection_.....---___- 28, 322. 76 220, 268. 00 143050 osa- =e aace ee 250, 030. 26 Research and explorations and re- lated administrative expense: Salaries{shiee esis. Bad ee See eo Ta cea ee aie Sees a ed) 32, 426. 58 | 1, 042, 473. 72 | 1, 074, 900. 30 DT AV Cl Ss ooo oe nes 1, 762. 81 4, 019. 29 Pe LP aaa Sa ae 8, 774. 32 Equipment and supply___--_--- ANGS27) Insc cocceaaneee SOOO lpaseeseeea oe 8, 803. 64 Others Se S25 222 eee Ar 2; 205: 15) |e cee se ee 8, 518. 11 | 1, 252, 423. 78 | 1, 263, 232. 04 Total research and explorations and related administrative expense__| 4, 474. 23 4,019.29 | 52,319.28 | 2, 294,897.50 | 2,355, 710. 30 Publications. o.4-- oe ese 7, 774. 93 Late Olatge ofan Cat yo ee ee ee 88, 249. 57 1 This statement does not include Government appropriations under administrative charge of the Institution. 2 Includes receipts for IGY program. 3 Includes disbursements for IGY program. 240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 CASH BALANCES, RECEIPTS, AND DISBURSEMENTS DURING FISCAL YEAR 1959—Continued Restricted funds Unre- stricted Gifts and Total funds grants General Freer DISBURSEMENTS—Continued Buildings, equipment, and grounds: Buildings and installations___.-]|...._--.---- SIOO58 25351) S15 0795800 pace eee $11, 188. 33 Court and grounds mainte- NAN CO tesa aaa enn ana a see Cle aasane se cae S061 54912 22.2 23 eos) poe e ane 306. 54 Mechmicaliia boTatonyin se. -=—-oela=see=- ee SBIHLS Wsataceoe see | oe ct 385. 28 Total buildings, equipment, and sTounds:..-. 54-22 ets el eS Su eee ce 10, 750. 35 1 O20 S Ou s=ae ea eas 11, 830, 15 Contractual services: Custodian and legal fees_--------- $5, 649. 84 11, 852. 36 4,301.05) [esos oe = ee 21, 803. 25 Supplies and expenses: Meetings, special exhibits__.---__|.-------=+.- 8, 529. 48 6x OLS 12 poe eee 14, 547. 60 (hectumes:3.22- ec 2a-ss5--25-225-5 430. 12 1028910 fest. -22 2-8] ea sae 1, 558, 22 Photographs and reproductions_-__]_-..------_- 5, 271. 12 415054 che anee eee 5, 686. 17 WA DTALY — eaten scons sea ae ee aae [aan eee 2, 847. 31 ft 02) | Se se 3, 958. 33 Stapioneryand.onice su pplissssces|ceesaen aaa ae eee Lb vlivg| = sees =e 175. 17 Postage, telephone, and telegraph_}----------__]-------------- 467; 00p) ss oak coe eee 467. 00 Stampumachines== Roy ead abet elaeneng THe, seiboonag af? 10. 1nd ae Savers ai dibs Hiya | cb Toate mined maieay, eat ok abated otnving 9 Smt es APTN IRAE et Par iat es aU “bassimedira rites) foaqle Gb iantrads ¥ Mh tos “orn —s soya 1).\8 iste 3M of Popiitenticag ROC SOAS, \a\ = ap Mas AHH, ABYs aes Loo 4 IOie ie ridetrall te fn bet ah ay = ALL Aber tndlibetien hg Ne Caan: . yar ON | GENERAL APPENDIX to the SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1959 245 ADVERTISEMENT The object of the Grnrrat Aprenpix to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by staff members and collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum- mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, the Secretary had a series of abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report of 1889, a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- sion. ‘This method has been continued in the present report for 1959. Reprints of the various papers in the General Appendix may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Edi- torial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Wash- ington 25, D.C. 246 The Transuranium Elements! By GLENN T. SEABORG Chancellor, University of California Berkeley [With 1 plate] Tue stupy of the transuranium elements is an exciting branch of science, which started less than 20 years ago and has a clearly discerni- ble future of great expansion. These elements represent the realization of the alchemists’ dream of transmutation. They have played an important role in the recent renaissance of inorganic chemistry. An advance as fundamental as a 10-percent increase in the number of chemical elements has, as one might anticipate, contributed much to our fund of the most basic scientific knowledge, especially in the fields of chemistry and physics. The chemistry and physics of the longer known transuranium ele- ments are already remarkably developed, and extremely interesting. Neptunium has an isotope sufficiently long lived to be safe to handle with moderate precautions in ordinary laboratories; plutonium and curium have similarly long-lived isotopes which should eventually make these elements available for broader investigation throughout the world when they become more available. One of the transuranium elements, plutonium, is particularly interesting. It has an isotope with nuclear properties such that it is destined to play an extremely important role in the history of mankind. Plutonium was discovered and methods for its manufacture were worked out under the cloak of secrecy during the last war. It was the first synthetic element to be seen by man and the first example of large-scale production of an element by transmutation. Plutonium has most unusual chemical and metallurgical properties. For example, it has four oxidation states which may exist in aqueous solution in equilibrium with each other at appreciable concentrations. The metallic form has six allotropic modifications between room temperature and its melting point, some with properties unknown in any other metal. The alpha-radioactivity and physiological behavior of its fissionable iso- 1 Reprinted by permission from Endeavour, vol. 18, No. 69, January 1959. 536608—60——_17 247 248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 tope, Pu2*, makes this one of the most dangerous known poisons. The announcement of its discovery to the world was through the atomic bomb that fell on Nagasaki. Plutonium, of course, has an important future in nuclear power. The fissionable isotope Pu’® makes its source isotope U**, which is not fissionable with slow neutrons, a potential nuclear fuel. The fertile U** is “burned” by going through the intermediate fissionable Pu**®. The discovery of the first transuranium element followed a false start 6 years earlier. When Enrico Fermi and his coworkers first bombarded uranium with slow neutrons in 1934 they found that a number of artificially radioactive species were produced, and in the immediately following years many more such substances were ob- served. Most of these were thought to be transuranium elements. Chemical investigation, however, led to the discovery of the fission process rather than to the discovery of transuranium elements. Sub- sequent work has shown that practically all the radioactive species believed to be transuranium elements were in fact fission products of uranium. In 1940 EK. M. McMillan and P. H. Abelson discovered the first transuranium element. This was neptunium, with atomic number 93. In the following years, many more transuranium ele- ments—plutonium (94), americium (95), curium (96), berkelium (97), californium (98), einsteinium (99), fermium (100), mendel- evium (101), and element 102—were synthesized and identified. The elements up to and including einsteinium have isotopes sufficiently long lived to be isolated in macroscopic, that is weighable, quantities, but this does not seem to be true beyond einsteinium. The transuranium elements are, for all practical purposes, synthetic in origin and must be produced by transmutation, starting, in the first instance, with uranium. However, two of them, neptunium and plutonium, are present in trace concentrations in uranium ores as the result of the action of the neutrons which are present. Investiga- tion of these new elements has resulted in the contribution of much information to inorganic chemistry, since they have a rich and varied chemical behavior, form unusual compounds, and in some cases dis- play an extraordinary complexity in solution. The relationship of these elements to each other and to the other elements is now within our understanding. Problems inherent in the study of these elements, such as those of handling quantities of material so small as to be unweighable, of working in safety with radioactive materials, and of preparing and identifying elements of ever-increasing atomic number, are being solved. POSITION IN THE PERIODIC TABLE Ideas on the position in the periodic table (table 1) of the heaviest elements have varied considerably over the years. Until the last war, 249 TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS—SEABORG *S}UST9]9 94} Jo 9/qGe} IIpOollag—'T aTavy, a0Le2 | POBEZ | GOIEe | SOzEe | POL22] wora0g Pepe a JO | Ha | wO Md SNe So) eed Milde OW alee o cay (£01) 10L 001 86 L6 96 #6 £6 c6 : 16 06 68 G6vL | vOeL | bEBa! | Z2Z91 | veal] ISzol | ceasl | S2zG1 | ozs! | GEOG Zevol GOI | 26821] sorz0g Ly Fels) PN og @) BT eprueyjuen €9 09 8S LS (SOL) | (201) | (901) Io L02 | 6 vO? | 19.002 | OLE! | GO'SE! | VzZél i cc 98l | 98'¢8l Bbiarinbicir 28 18 08 6L 8L LL GL tL Oss'ZOl| v'90! | 16°20) él GS6'S6 i c2l6 | 2688 } : GY SO A ly OF 6f BE LE 96'bb | 80 OF | OOI6E 4 66802 fo $8 Fira gg. | oeiel | 1692! gzi2l | ove | espn [| ip'2il 2X I [Sei 45) “leer Le eS eG | by 87 oes | 9662 | 96eZ | lebz | O92 | ere9 | BESO 9¢ GCmaleeres 2 66 ce lL 0¢ byes | LSp'se | 990'2¢ | Sze'0E | 6O'82 | 86'92 81 LI 91 gl 1! gl £8102 | 00'6! | 000'9! | 800'bI 280! oN J O N 6 8 L Ly 9P pse9 | izes | pees | secs [ bes | los | S60S | O6Lb Ps wlala|e| «| Fa 62 82 LZ 92 4 $2 x4 44 = g 250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 thorium, protoactinium, and uranium were commonly placed imme- diately below the elements hafnium, tantalum, and tungsten, which are members of a transition series in which the 5d electron shell is being filled. This placing was based on the assumption that the three heavy elements were members of a Gd electron transition series. The appearance of N. Bohr’s paper on the quantized nuclear atom in 1913 led to suggestions that a 5f electron transition series should start in the region thorium to element 95 inclusive, before the completion of the 6d electron shell. With the discovery of neptunium and then plutonium, the boundaries of the periodic table were transcended, and as knowledge of the first transuranium elements accumulated, it became evident that a whole new family of elements, some known and some still to be discovered, existed in this region of the periodic table. The fact that the transuranium elements are members of a transition series similar to the rare earth, or lanthanide, series is useful in pre- dicting the chemical properties of these elements before they are actually detected. This particular pattern of similarity, recognized by the author in 1944 on the basis of the chemical properties of neptunium and plutonium, was the key to the discovery of elements 95 and 96 (americium and curium) and has been essential to the dis- covery of the transcurium elements. Since all the elements beyond actinium seem to belong to the actinide group (a name chosen by analogy with the lanthanide group), the elements thorium, protoac- tinium, and uranium have been removed from the positions they occupied in the periodic table before 1939 and placed in this transition family; as we shall see, elements 104, 105, and 106 will presumably take over the positions previously held by thorium, protoactinium, and uranium. Thus we have the interesting result that the new- comers have affected the face of the periodic table, and a change has been made after many years during which it seemed to have assumed its final form. NEPTUNIUM The discovery of the first transuranium element, neptunium, resulted from McMillan’s investigation of the fission process. In measuring the energies of the two main fragments from the neutron-induced fission of uranium, he found that there was another radioactive prod- uct of the reaction, one which did not recoil sufficiently to escape from the thin layer of uranium undergoing fission. He suspected that this was a product formed by neutron capture in the uranium. McMillan and Abelson were able to show on the basis of their chemical work that this product was an isotope of element 93 (Np**), arising by beta decay of U?** formed by neutron capture in U**. It was not obvious what the electronic configuration and chemical properties of neptunium might be. Uranium was known to have TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS—SEABORG 251 some similarity to tungsten, and it was thought that element 93 might resemble rhenium, the next element beyond tungsten. There was the possibility, however, that neptunium might be a member of some new type of transition series among the heavy elements. McMillan and Abelson’s investigation of neptunium showed that it resembles ura- nium, not rhenium, in its chemical properties. This was the first definite evidence that the 5f electron shell is filled in the transuranium region. The early investigation of neptunium, as of all the transuranium elements, was made by the tracer technique. In this method, an ele- ment having chemical properties similar to those of the element being studied is used to follow the behavior of the radioactive element, which is present in amounts as small as 10° g., or even less. The element is followed in the various reactions by means of its radio- activity rather than by chemical analysis. In spite of the smallness of the quantities present, much can be deduced about the chemical properties of an element—for example, the solubility of its com- pounds, its oxidation-reduction potentials, and its formation of complexions—by the use of such methods. PLUTONIUM Plutonium was next to be discovered. By bombarding uranium with deuterons, E. M. McMillan, J. W. Kennedy, A. C. Wahl, and the author, in late 1940, succeeded in preparing a new isotope of nep- tunium, Np***, which decayed to Pu***. The half-life of this isotope was found to be sufficiently long to permit detection and to make pos- sible our obtaining considerable chemical information about it by tracer studies. Armed with this information about the new elements, J. W. Kennedy, E. Segré, A. C. Wahl, and the author in 1941 identi- fied the most important plutonium isotope, Pu, as the decay product of Np*® and we were able to prove that Pu*® undergoes fission with slow neutrons. The realization that plutonium, as Pu**, could serve as a nuclear weapon and that it might be created in quantity in a nuclear chain reactor made it imperative to carry out chemical investigations of plutonium with microgram quantities. In August 1942, B. B. Cunningham and L. B. Werner succeeded in isolating about a micro- gram of Pu®® which had been prepared by cyclotron irradiations. Thus plutonium was the first manmade element to be obtained in visi- ble quantity. A background of manipulative techniques for this ultramicrochem- ical work was provided by the pioneer investigations of P. L. Kirk and A. A. Benedetti-Pichler. If extremely small volumes are used, even microgram quantities of material can give relatively high con- Zoo ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 centrations in solution, and with the development of balances of the required sensitivity, micrograms were also sufficient for gravimetric analysis. Liquid volumes in the range 107 to 10° ml. were meas- ured with an error of less than 1 percent by means of finely calibrated capillary tubing, the movement of liquid being controlled by air pres- sure. Smaller pipettes were constructed to fill by capillary action. Chemical glassware, such as test tubes and beakers, was constructed from capillary tubing having an internal diameter of 0.1-1 mm. and was handled with micromanipulators. The weights of solid reagents and precipitates handled in ultramicrochemical work are usually in the range of 0.1-100ug. There are some changes in method in- volved in the change of scale—thus, solids are usually separated from liquids by centrifuging rather than by filtration. The actual chemical work is usually done on the mechanical stage of a microscope, where the essential apparatus is within view (fig. 2). Among the early accomplishments in ultramicrochemistry was the isolation of pure neptunium (pl. 1, fig. 1) and pure plutonium compounds (pl. 1, fig. 2) as well as the preparation of plutonium metal. Figures 1 and 3 show schematic drawings of the experimental arrangements used in the preparation of pure plutonium metal and pure plutonium trichloride. Plutonium is the only synthetic element that has been produced and isolated in kilogram quantities. The large plant at Hanford, Wash., was constructed on the basis of investigations performed with about 2 mg. of plutonium; the scaleup between ultramicrochemical experi- ments to the final Hanford plant corresponds to a factor of about 10°, surely a scaleup of unique proportions. Frequently chemical investigation of plutonium and of other trans- uranium elements is carried out on a scale of a milligram or less by choice, rather from any limitation on supply—Pu*® is exceedingly toxic because of its high alpha-radioactivity, amounting to about THORIA CAP TUNGSTEN HEATING COIL THORIA OUTER CRUCIBLE THORIA INNER CRUCIBLE VACUUM LINE <—— BARIUM METAL LOOSE FITTING THORIA PLATE PLUTONIUM TETRAFLUORIDE ROUND JOINT Ficure 1.—Apparatus used in the first preparation of plutonium metal (November 1943). 35 wg of plutonium tetrafluoride was treated with volatilized barium metal in a thoria crucible at 1400° C. The metallic plutonium was produced as silvery globules weighing about 3 wg each. TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS—SEABORG 253 BINOCULAR STEREOSCOPIC MICROSCOPE GIVING Ca. 30x MAGNIFICATION 1/2 ml SYRINGE SIMPLE MIGROPIPET DOWN MICROMANIPULATOR TO 0.1 MICROLITER PER Cm.OF LENGTH MICROSCOPIC FIELD Ficure 2.—Experimental arrangement for the study of precipitation reactions on the micro- gram scale. 140 million alpha-disintegrations per minute per milligram; special equipment and precautions, as well as the use of material in very small amounts, are necessary when working with it. AMERICIUM AND CURIUM After plutonium had been produced in quantity, the discoveries of americium (1944-45) and curium (1944) were made, The speed of discovery of these elements was due largely to the accurate prediction of their chemical properties on the basis of their assumed position in the periodic table (p. 249). Curium, discovered by R. A. James, L. O. Morgan, A. Ghiorso, and the author, was synthesized as Cm?” by the bombardment of plutonium with helium ions. The production of americium by James, Ghiorso, and the author was accomplished by preparing Pu**, which decays by beta emission to Am, IDENTIFICATION BY ION EXCHANGE The ion-exchange technique, coupled with element-by-element com- parison of the behavior of corresponding actinide and lanthanide elements, has been essential in the discovery of the transuranium elements. Since the actinide elements above plutonium are predom- inantly trivalent in solution and have a close chemical resemblance, most conventional chemical separations are not suitable. Again, the 254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 TO Cl» SUPPLY: Tree TO VACUUM CHLORINE RESERVOIR COOLING BATH B QUARTZ Cc AIR JET S g PLUTONIUM ME TAL CLOTH: WICK WET WITH Hp —_—————- THERMOCOUPLE is COPPER BLOCK Ficure 3.—Apparatus used in the first preparation of PuCl; (February 1944). The com- pound was prepared by treating a 50-ug piece of plutonium metal with chlorine gas. After placing the plutonium in the capillary tube, the system was evacuated. Chlo- rine gas was added, and a small amount condensed in a reservoir as shown. The sys- tem was closed and remained filled with chlorine at a pressure of about 60 mm. Hg. The copper block was heated to 45° C., and the reaction product was formed in the top of the capillary tube. The section of the capillary containing the product was sealed off and the compound formed was identified by X-ray diffraction. first isotopes of the new actinide elements were obtained in very small amounts, and are very short lived. Specific and rapid methods are therefore necessary in identifying these elements, and ion exchange provides both. Much of the chemical knowledge we have of the actinide elements heavier than curium is concerned with their ion- exchange and elution properties. The trivalent actinide and lanthanide ions in aqueous solution undergo a cation exchange when a solid organic base-exchange poly- mer is stirred in. The solid material can then be placed at the top of a glass column filled with more of the organic polymer that is free of the actinides or lanthanides. Elution can then be accomplished by pouring through the column a solution containing ions that form complex ions with the actinide or lanthanide ions. In certain well- behaved systems the lanthanide elements elute from the column in the inverse order of their atomic numbers, that is, lutetium can be collected as the first element in the drops coming through the column, ytterbium as the second element, and so on to cerium. The whole process bears a close resemblance to chromatography. In the case of the actinides, the undiscovered element 103 will leave the column first, followed by element 102, and so on down the scale of atomic numbers. BERKELIUM AND CALIFORNIUM At the end of 1949 and beginning of 1950, experiments led to the production of elements 97 and 98, berkelium and californium. The first six transuranium elements were discovered almost in pairs, with time lapses corresponding to necessary improvements in technique and the accumulation of starting material. Milligram amounts of ameri- Smithsonian Report, 1959—Seaborg d). at NS 194 le, appears as a crusty deposit, io 4 bo ng rn 18) > 5 & z+ > Cc a, e weighed (September 10, 1 nt as the oxic m compound to b he arrow, nea +} [ db The plutonium, prese First plutor ) the bottom of in 1944 at } ed pears epi 1sOla q oxide, TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS—SEABORG 255 cium for target material were prepared by the intense neutron irradi- ation of plutonium for a long time; this process builds up the heavier elements by a series of neutron captures. Curium for target material was prepared in microgram amounts by the neutron irradiation of some of the americium. Both of these neutron bombardments were carried out in high-flux reactors. Berkelium, as the isotope Bk***, was discovered by S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and the author in December 1949, as a result of the bombardment of americium with helium ions. Californium was first synthesized and identified by S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso, and the author in February 1950, the isotope Cf**> being produced by the bombardment of microgram amounts of curium with helium ions. The identifica- tion of californium was accomplished with a total of about 5,000 atoms. EINSTEINIUM AND FERMIUM The first test thermonuclear explosion, which took place in the Pacific in November 1952, led to the discovery of elements 99 and 100, einsteinium and fermium. These two elements were found in debris, collected first on filter papers attached to aeroplanes which flew through the explosion area and later in more substantial quanti- ties by gathering up surface materials from a neighboring atoll. The uranium in the fission-fusion device was subjected to an instantaneous intense neutron flux which gave rise to very heavy uranium isotopes. These rapidly decayed into heavy isotopes of plutonium, amer- iclum, curium, berkelium, californium, and elements 99 and 100. These reaction products were investigated by groups at the Uni- versity of California Radiation Laboratory, Argonne National Lab- oratory, and Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. The two elements were discovered by Ghiorso and coworkers at the three laboratories. Einsteinium and fermium can be synthesized by a number of meth- ods. Chief among these is the irradiation of plutonium for several years with an extremely high neutron flux in such a reactor as the Materials Testing Reactor at Arco, Idaho. The einsteinium used to produce element 101 was prepared in the Materials Testing Reactor. MENDELEVIUM The synthesis of element 101 was planned and accomplished not only with an amount of target einsteinium (K**) so small as to be un- weighable, but also with the expectation that no more than one atom of element 101 per experiment would be produced. Only about 1,000 million atoms of K*** were available for target material. In addition, the separation of the one atom of element 101 from the 10° atoms of target einsteinium and its ultimate complete chemical identification 536608—60——_18 256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 by separation in the eka-thulium position by the ion-exchange method would have to be accomplished. These requirements necessi- tated new techniques, and also some luck; fortunately, both were forthcoming. The new technique involved the separation of element 101 from the einsteinium in the target by the recoil method. ‘The einsteinium was plated onto a gold foil in an invisibly thin layer. The helium-ion beam was sent through the back of the foil so that the atoms of element 101, recoiling because of the momentum of the impinging helium ions, could be caught on a second thin gold foil. This second gold foil, containing recoil atoms, yet relatively free of the target einsteinium, was dissolved and the chemical separations were performed. Very sensitive methods were available for the detec- tion of isotopes decaying by alpha-particle emission or by spontaneous fission. These methods were so efficient that as little as one or two atoms of element 101 per experiment could be detected. The earliest experiments were confined to looking for short-lived alpha-emitting isotopes that might be due to element 101. However, no alpha activity was observed that could be attributed to element 101, even when the time between the end of the bombardment and the beginning of the alpha-particle analysis was reduced to 5 minutes. The experiments were continued, and in one of the subsequent bombardments, a single large pulse due to spontaneous fission was observed. Chemical experiments indicated that the spontaneous fis- sion counts, when they did appear, came in chemical fractions cor- responding approximately to element 100 or 101. In the definitive experiments, three successive 38-hour bombardments were made, and, in turn, their transmutation products were completely and quickly separated by the ion-exchange method. A total of five spontaneous fission counts was observed in the elution position corresponding to element 101, while a total of eight spontaneous fission counts was also observed in the element 100 position. No such counts were observed in any other position. The spontaneous fission activity in both the element 101 and 100 fractions decayed with a half-life of about 3 hours. This and other evidence led to the view that the isotope has the mass number 256 and decays by electron capture, with a half-life of the order of an hour, to the isotope Fm?** which is responsible for the spontaneous fission decay. On the basis of this evidence, the group, consisting of A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey, G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson, and the author, an- nounced the discovery of element 101. We gave the new element the name mendelevium in recognition of the pioneering role of Dmitri Mendeleev, who was the first to use the periodic system of the elements to predict the chemical properties of undiscovered elements. Subse- quent experiments using larger amounts of einsteinium in the target TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS—SEABORG PAS Ti have led to the production of over 100 atoms of mendelevium. The indications are that mendelevium is a typical tripositive actinide element and a true eka-thulium, as expected. ELEMENT 102 The discovery of element 102 was announced in 1957 as the result of work done at the Nobel Institute for Physics in Stockholm by a team of scientists from the Argonne National Laboratory, the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell, and the Nobel Institute. An isotope of the element was reportedly produced by bombarding Cm? with cyclotron-produced C¥“ ions and decayed with a half- life of about 10 minutes by the emission of 8-5 MeV alpha particles. The name nobelium for element 102 was suggested by this group. Unfortunately it has not been possible to confirm this discovery in experiments performed at the University of California Radiation Laboratory. In April 1958 a group consisting of Ghiorso, T. Sikke- land, J. R. Walton, and the author at the Radiation Laboratory identified the isotope 10274 as a product of the bombardment of Cm?** with C™ ions accelerated in the new heavy-ion linear accelerator there. (The reaction is Cm?#*(C™, 4n)102%*). The element 102 isotope decays by alpha-particle emission with a half-life of about 3 seconds. It was detected by the chemical identification of its known daughter Fm, the atoms of the daughter element being separated from the parent element 102 by taking advantage of the recoil due to element 102 alpha-decay. Although the name nobelium for element 102 will undoubtedly have to be changed, the investigators have not, at the time of writing, made their suggestion for the new name. COMPARISON OF ACTINIDES AND LANTHANIDES The resemblance between the actinide and lanthanide elements sug- gests that their electronic structures must besimilar. In the lanthanide elements, the 14 4f electrons are added one by one, beginning with cerium (atomic number 58) and ending with lutetium (atomic num- ber 71). In the actinide elements, 14 5f electrons are added, beginning formally with thorium and ending with element 103. The evidence for this, which is too complex and lengthy to discuss in this article, lies in the chemical properties, absorption and fluorescence spectra in aqueous solution and crystals, crystallographic structure data, mag- netic data, and spectroscopic data. The lanthanide gadolinium, with seven 4f electrons, and the actinide curium, with seven 5f electrons, are of especial interest because of the enhanced stability of the half- filled f-electron shell configuration. The two elements have been found to have properties that are strikingly similar. The family relation- ship within the actinide group means that the study of any one of 258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 them often gives indirect information about the chemical properties of another. Thus certain anomalous elution sequences among the transplutonium elements have made it possible to make deductions about the chemical properties of plutonium in relation to its electronic structure. There are important differences between the actinide and lanthanide elements, however, due largely to the lower binding energies and less effective shielding by outer electrons of 5f (as compared to 4f) elec- trons. It appears that the first 5f electron is not present in thorium. Evidence to date indicates that uranium possesses three 5f electrons. The additional 5f electrons apparently are added to the succeeding elements in a regular fashion, proceeding through curium with its half-filled shell to the as yet undiscovered element 103 which pre- sumably will have 14 5f electrons. In the early members of the actinide group particularly, the lower binding energies of the 5f elec- trons compared to the 4f electrons tend to make higher oxidation states more accessible. For these lighter actinide elements, the problem of assignment of electrons to 5f or 6d orbitals is difficult, since here the energy separations apparently lie within the range of chemical bind- ing energies. It may not be possible to establish from the configura- tion of the gaseous atom the electronic structure of the compounds or of hydrated ions in aqueous solution. In the case of the lanthanide elements, the configuration of the gaseous atom includes, in general, only two electrons (beyond the xenon structure) outside the 4f shell, although the predominant oxidation state in aqueous solution is the trivalent state. It may also be noted that for a given element in the actinide group there is a stabilization of 5f compared to 6d electrons with increasing oxidation state. However, the differences between the actinide and lanthanide groups give opportunities for the investigation of important new chemical phenomena. For example, their energetic position and larger spatial extension make the 5f orbitals available in bond hybridization; this leads to some very interesting complex ions. Similarly, the exposure of the 5f electrons can lead to field-splitting effects which can affect ionic entropies in manners which have not been observed in the lighter elements. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS The discovery of further new transuranium elements seems possible. Studies of the known isotopes of the transuranium elements have made possible the prediction of the decay properties of new isotopes. For decay by both alpha-particle emission and spontaneous fission, the regularities have been found to be greatest for nuclei which contain an even number of neutrons and an even number of protons, thus TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS—SEABORG 259 making predictions of the properties for undiscovered isotopes of this type more certain. The rates of decay by alpha-particle emission and by spontaneous fission are slower for isotopes having an odd number of protons or an odd number of neutrons or an odd number of both protons and neutrons. Unfortunately for the prospect of producing ever higher elements, the predictions suggest shorter half- lives as atomic number increases. By the time elements 104 and 105 are reached, we shall probably find that the longest-lived isotopes that can be made will exist barely long enough for chemical identification. In the case of element 104, the predicted half-lives of the longest-lived isotopes are measured in seconds or minutes and for element 105 in seconds. It should be mentioned, however, that any of these nuclides can have a specially hindered decay, leading to longer half-lives than those predicted. It is likely that the present basic criterion for the discovery of a new element, namely chemical identification and separa- tion from all previously known elements, will have to be changed at some point. Careful measurements of decay properties and produc- tion yields and mechanisms, and the clever use of recoil techniques, should eventually allow the extension of effective identification to another half-dozen elements or so beyond the heaviest now known. In fact the identification of the first isotopes of al] the new elements that will be discovered in the future probably will be accomplished through the use of such methods, and the production of isotopes with sufficiently long half-lives to allow chemical identification will follow later. For the isotopes with very short half-lives, some chemical identification can probably be made using simpler and faster methods involving migration, volatility, reactions with surfaces, or gas-flow reactions. Some interesting predictions concerning superheavy nuclei have been made. J. A. Wheeler has been able to show that extranuclear electrons for atoms with atomic number substantially higher than 137 (often considered the upper limit) would behave normally because of the finite extension of the nucleus. Accordingly it would appear that there is no limitation on the existence of such heavy elements from the standpoint of the electronic structure of such atoms. The production of such nuclei would require extremely high neutron fluxes, of the order of 10** neutrons per square centimeter per second, such as may be present in stars. It is difficult to see how such nuclei can be made on earth. There is no indication that such superheavy nuclei can be produced and detected, because the rate of decay increases rapidly as the atomic number increases. Unless unexpected islands of sta- bility due to closed neutron or proton shells are found, predictions based on regularities in decay properties suggest that it should not be possible to produce and detect elements beyond another half dozen or so, 260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 The prediction of the chemical properties of elements beyond men- delevium seems to be quite straightforward. Element 103 should complete the actinide series, and it is expected that elements 104, 105, 106, etc., will be fitted into the periodic table under hafnium, tanta- lum, tungsten, etc. The filling of the 6d electronic shell should be followed by the addition of electrons to the 7p shell, with the attain- ment of the rare gas structure at hypothetical element 118. It seems quite certain that the chemical identification of elements 102 and 103 will eventually be made by ion exchange, using knowledge of their homologs ytterbium and lutetium and other actinide elements. Element 102 might be expected to have a stable trivalent oxidation state and a somewhat unstable bivalent state which may be of impor- tance in the chemical identification of the element. ‘The bivalent state of element 102, if it is comparable in stability to the bivalent state of ytterbium, may permit a rapid separation of element 102 from the other actinide elements by electrolytic or amalgam reduction using ytterbium as a carrier. The stability of the bivalent state may be reflected in the properties of the metallic state of the element, result- ing in an unusually low density and a relatively high volatility. Ele- ment 103 might be expected to have only a trivalent oxidation state. Element 104 should be exclusively tetravalent in aqueous solution and should resemble its homolog hafnium. Element 105 should re- semble niobium and tantalum, and to some extent protoactinium, with the pentavalent oxidation state expected to be the most important. The chemical properties of element 106 can be predicted from those of tungsten, molybdenum, and to some extent chromium; thus we might expect to find the 1m, Iv, v, and vi oxidation states. Elements 107, 108, 109, 110, etc., would be expected to have chemical resemblance to rhenium, osmium, iridium, and platinum respectively. The possibility of preparing transfermium elements by the process of multiple neutron capture as a result of intense neutron bombard- ment over long periods of time is almost precluded by the fact that some of the intermediate isotopes have half-lives so short as to pro- hibit their presence in such appreciable concentrations as are required. Fortunately, there is another type of nuclear reaction that offers prom- ise for the production of elements of higher atomic number than those now known. This is the method of bombardment with heavy ions. Reactions of this type have already been observed in many laborato- ries; isotopes of californium, einsteinium, and fermium have been pro- duced by the bombardment of uranium with carbon ions, nitrogen ions, and oxygen ions, respectively. These ions can be accelerated in conventional cyclotrons. A linear accelerator capable of produc- ing substantial beams of all the heavy ions up to neon and, possibly, usable beams of ions as heavy as those of argon has been constructed TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS—SEABORG 261 at the University of California at Berkeley. A similar accelerator is in operation at Yale University. Russia has shown a great interest in heavy ions and their application to the synthesis of transuranium elements and has accelerators for heavy ions under construction. Even with use of heavy ions, however, the source of target materials will present serious problems. New, expensive, high-flux reactors, producing 101° to 10'° neutrons per square centimeter per second, are needed in order to prepare even milligram amounts of berkelium, californium, and einsteinium within a reasonable space of time. This short article has, of necessity, omitted even reference to many of the important aspects of the transuranium element field. In par- ticular, it has not been possible to capture the international flavor of the work which has gone on in recent years. The emphasis has been on the chemical properties, the historical aspects, and the possibilities for future advances in this field. Much of interest could be told of the methods of production and of the many new long-lived isotopes which are becoming available in weighable amounts. The nuclear properties, which were barely mentioned, are of great interest. Over 80 isotopes of the transuranium elements are now known. The decay properties of these have been of great importance for the development of the Copenhagen school’s unified model of the nucleus, and the induced and spontaneous fission properties of such isotopes are very important to the future development of a satisfactory theory for the nuclear-fission process. BIBLIOGRAPHY BRoNI, G. 1957. Chimica generale e inorganica. 10th ed. G. R. Levi and M. A. Rollier, eds. Milan. GOL’DANSKI, V. I. 1955. New chemical elements (in Russian), ser. 8, No.2. Moscow. Haissinsky, M. 1957. La chimie nucléaire et ses applications. Paris. Hype, HE. K., and Seazsore, G. T. 1957. The transuranium elements. Handb. Phys., vol. 42, p. 205. Berlin. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THE PEACEFUL USES oF ATOMIC ENERGY, Geneva, 1955. 1956. Proceedings. Vols. 1-16. United Nations, New York. Karz, J. J.,.and SEAsBorG, G. T. 1957. The chemistry of the actinide elements. New York. LisTErR, M. W. 1950. Chemistry of the transuranic elements. Vol. 4, p. 20. Chemical Soc., London. MELANDER, L. 1951. Om transuranerna. Svensk Kem. Tidskr., vol. 63, p. 311. Nast, REINHARD, and VON KRAKKAY, TIBOR. 1952. Chemie und Aktinidentheorie der Transurane. Fortschr. Chem. Forsch., Bd. 2, Heft 3, p. 484. 262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 PERLMAN, I., and RASMUSSEN, J. O. 1957. Alpha radioactivity. Handb. Phys., vol. 42, p. 109. Berlin. Remy, H. 1956. Treatise on inorganic chemistry. Vol. 2. London. SEasore, G. T. 1949. The eight new synthetic elements. (In Japanese.) Kagaku, vol. 19, p. 211. 1958. The transuranium elements. Yale University Press, New Haven. Sreapore, G. T., and Karz, J. J., Editors. 1954. The actinide elements. National Nuclear Energy Series, Div. 4, vol. 14A. New York. Sreapore, G. T.; Katz, J. J.; and MANNING, W. M., Hditors. 1949. The transuranium elements. National Nuclear Energy Series, Div. 4, vol. 14B. New York. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. The IGY in Retrospect By Exvuiott B. ROBERTS Coast and Geodetic Survey United States Department of Commerce [With 3 plates] On Decemeer 31, 1958, there was concluded a worldwide intellec- tual effort often characterized as the greatest cooperative enterprise for peaceful purposes in all human history. Between 20,000 and 30,000 scientists of 67 nations, with innumerable supporting workers, endeavored to expand man’s understanding of his physical environ- ment. This was the International Geophysical Year. It is truly remarkable that such an enterprise was successfully planned and executed, in a period of unprecedented political passions and tension, through direct contact between scientists themselves without recourse to diplomatic intervention or formal treaties. As a result we have new and powerful ties on an individual level be- tween leading scientists of many lands, mounting understanding for one another, a great breach in the Iron Curtain, and a demonstration that men of many races and political faiths can work together fruit- fully. Even if these accomplishments cannot be exactly evaluated, their meaning for the world is deep and pervasive. A number of great discoveries were made and more will inevitably grow out of the gradual assimilation, in years to come, of the accumu- lated data of the IGY. The borders of our knowledge of man’s environment were pushed back in several important respects, with an already vast and growing store of new knowledge which will sharply influence the course of human development. The space age was inaugurated under the auspices of the IGY; study and exploitation of our last geographical frontiers in Antarc- tica and over the oceans began to flourish in a new spirit of inter- national cooperation; the age-old concern of all mankind with weather received tremendous new impetus; and human beings took bold steps toward better understanding of the earth itself, its physical structure and its gravitational and magnetic fields; of its earthquakes, oro- genic processes and glaciation; of the chemical and physical processes 263 264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 of its oceans and atmosphere; and of its all-important relations to our sun. One of the great physical-science discoveries of all time was made by a member of the small group of geophysicists who were the actual creators of the IGY. It was at an informa] meeting at the Silver Spring, Md., home of James A. Van Allen that this group met on April 8, 1950, to discuss geophysical matters with a renowned visiting British upper atmosphere scientist, Sidney Chapman. Among those present was Lloyd V. Berkner, a foremost American scientist, then of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, who there proposed a suc- cessor to two previous international efforts known as International Polar Years. This was the genesis of the IGY—an undertaking des- tined to bring Dr. Van Allen to fame as discoverer of the great Van Allen radiation belts in space surrounding the earth. The implica- tions of his discovery are as yet unimaginable, but they are certainly tremendous—quite possibly comparable with those attending the dis- covery of radio waves. THE FIRST AND SECOND INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEARS The first and second polar years were, in a sense, models for the IGY. The famous American naval officer M. F. Maury had sug- gested international scientific exploration of Antarctica as early as 1861, but his rather limited proposals did not meet with acceptance. Karl Weyprecht, an Austrian explorer-scientist, who had interested himself in the then-inexplicable vagaries of weather, the compass, and auroral displays experienced by 19th-century Arctic explorers, later proposed an international] effort to acquire simultaneously data from a circumpolar chain of stations. There resulted in 1882-83 a so-called International Polar Expedition, under what was later known as the International Meteorological Organization. The agreed term of oc- cupation was a 13-month interval known as the International Polar Year beginning August 1, 1882. It happened that solar activity at the time was near a peak of the 11.2-year recurrence cycle. Twelve countries rallied to Weyprecht’s call, establishing 12 stations in the Arctic and 2 in sub-Antarctica. Weyprecht did not live to see the realization of his idea; however, the scientific world received an important new mass of data, a heightened awareness of complex relationships between several of the manifestations under observa- tion, and the stimulus of working together without regard to political or racial barriers. The Second International Polar Year followed a 1927 proposal by J. Giorgi of Hamburg. It was carried on by a special commission of the International Meteorological Organization, with D. LaCour of the Danish Meteorological Institute as its guiding spirit. The ob- IGY IN RETROSPECT—ROBERTS 265 serving period, August 1, 1932, to August 31, 1933, was designed to be 50 years after the first polar year, and due note was made of the fact that this, unlike the former period, would be one of minimum solar activity. The objectives included investigations in the newer dis- ciplines of ionospheric physics and cosmic-ray studies. This second effort saw the establishment of 35 special stations by 20 nations, which, together with more than 60 regular establishments, made nearly 100 observing points. One was in Antarctica. J. A. Fleming and N. H. Heck of the United States served on the commis- sion, and the major American contributions were magnetic, auroral, and ionospheric observations at Fairbanks and Point Barrow, Alaska, auroral studies in Greenland, and widespread weather observations. The accomplishments included substantial progress toward under- standing magnetic storms and other magnetic disturbances and asso- ciated auroral and ionospheric phenomena, and improved knowledge of wind and pressure systems in high latitudes of the Northern Hemi- sphere. A vast collection of data resulted, some of which still awaits types of analysis that only modern high-speed computers can provide. BEGINNINGS OF THE IGY The group in Dr. Van Allen’s home in 1950, aware of the rapid advances in geophysics, especially in ionospheric investigations, per- ceived the desirability of a third and still greater effort, this time after a period of only 25 years and this time by design to coincide with another peak of the solar-activity cycle. It was recognized that the field of observation would be far wider than just the polar areas. Sidney Chapman, then president of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) as well as of one of its constituent associations on terrestrial magnetism and electricity (IATME—later IAGA), and Lloyd V. Berkner, a member of the United States National Committee for the International Union of Scientific Radio (URSI), referred the matter to three international scientific organi- zations, of which the first to meet was the Mixed Commission on the Ionosphere (MCI), maintained by URSI with the cooperation of IUGG and the International Astronomical Union (IAU). The Com- mission, followed later by URSI and IAU, endorsed the proposal to the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), a top-level coordinating body. In January 1951, ICSU commended the idea to its own executive board, which, in the following October, decided to form a special ICSU committee to run the show. This committee, which turned out to be of protem nature, together with other inter- ested organizations, took preliminary steps resulting in several effec- tive actions. Nations adhering to ICSU were invited to form national committees to organize their own participation in the project. The polar-year 266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 concept was broadened to encompass the world, since the phenomena originally considered characteristic of the polar regions were now known to be but intense manifestations of worldwide phenomena, and the new name “International Geophysical Year” was adopted. A geodetic project of the IUGG and URSI for a new world-longitude determination was included. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and later the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) were welcomed to the company. Most important, by early July 1953, a full Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year (CSAGI) had been convened. In its first meet- ing, Dr. Chapman and Dr. Berkner were elected president and vice president, and Marcel Nicolet of Belgium was designated permanent secretary. The committee contained representatives of IAU, IUGG, URSI, WMO, ICSU, the International Geographical Union (IGU), and later IUPAP, suitably distributed by nationality. The IGY was considered at first as being divided among 11 disci- plines comprising such representative coverage of geophysics as meteorology, latitude and longitude determinations, geomagnetism, the ionosphere, aurorae and airglow, solar activity, cosmic rays, glaciology, and oceanography. The work was planned to be supported by a variety of constructive operations such as the choice and announcement of selected World Days for intensive observations, the organization of world data centers for the collection and dissemina- tion of technical results, and a program of publication covering all aspects of the IGY. The eventual performance of the work followed generally along the indicated lines; however, there were some changes, such as the later inclusion of gravity determinations and seismology, and the organization in some countries of such specialized logistic or operational activities as polar expeditions (notably to Antarctica), rocketry, and earth satellite experimentation. The original plan, subject to extensive later additions, dealt with broad objectives toward which the participating countries would work. In meteorology it included global atmospheric circulation, energy content and dynamics, ozone, cloud physics, and radio atmospherics and electricity. In geomagnetism the principal problems were the morphology of magnetic storms and transient effects, relations with the ionosphere, and the equatorial electrojet. Synoptic studies of aurorae, especially in relation to magnetic storms, were planned, as well as the betterment of auroral charts, spectrographic and photo- metric studies, and corresponding treatment of airglow phenomena. Tonospheric work was to include extensive recordings of layer heights, radio absorption and scatter effects, and galactic noises. Solar-activ- ity work was to be intensified and to include observations of radiation, sunspots and flares, the corona, and general spectroscopy. Cosmic- IGY IN RETROSPECT—ROBERTS 267 ray studies were important for their implications regarding solar and geophysical effects, especially in relation to magnetic fields of the sun, the earth, and space, and to cosmic-ray interactions with the atmos- phere. Latitude and longitude work was directed to improve time determinations and star catalogs and to determine the irregularities of the earth’s rotation. Glaciological and oceanographic work, orig- inally considered not to be of synoptic nature, and therefore of minor IGY significance, eventually grew into major projects because of their importance in the heat balance and chemical problems of meteorology. Oceanography in particular loomed large because of the intimate relations of the oceans to many problems of weather and terrestrial dynamics and because of the vast natural resources of the oceans. Emphasis throughout was placed on worldwide views of all these geo- physical phenomena, and particularly on intensive investigations in little-known Antarctica. THE OPERATION OF IGY ANNEX VII ; NATIONAL INTERNATIONAL Wor-p Data RESEARCH AND Pustica- AL PERIOD SPONSOR PLANNING COORDINATION GBSeH NAO NAETEERID CENTERS EVALUATION TIONS ations cer. or wn Annals CSAGI Reporters of the IGY A pisciplines ¥ Nat. IGY Committees @ 66 IGY IGY Porticipating ey Stations A Scientific Institutions Participating Committees gutin : 5 Individual Scientists Committees __(ACIGY) s by 4 =H me ai Scientific} nths ee s Coordination g 5 Discipline 5 General 9 Regional Conferences| Assemblies Conferences Ficure 1 Inevitably many other detailed aspects of these disciplines, as well as entirely new and unanticipated problems, demanded attention before the IGY was even well started. While the original concept, derived from the polar-year experiences, envisioned a program con- centrating on synoptic problems, secondary objectives presented them- selves and were admitted to provide for types of work that would be facilitated by the basic IGY activities, or that could constitute epochal measurements for secular change studies. ORGANIZATION OF THE IGY One of the first aims of CSAGI was to enlist the cooperation of as many countries as possible—ideally all scientifically competent na- tions. At one of the formal meetings of CSAGI at Rome in 1954, 268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Moscow sent a delegation to announce the intentions of the Soviet Union to participate—a development of strong accelerating effect, since no less than 66 nations eventually joined. Another significant event occurred at Rome. Following shortly after initial reeommenda- tions from URSI and IUGG, the CSAGI group formally proposed that countries able to do so undertake to place artificial earth satel- lites in orbit for the uniquely valuable observations seen to be possible by such means. Thus geophysicists hoped to acquire otherwise inac- cessible information bearing on the cause and formation of the aurora, on the fluctuations of the earth’s magnetic field, on the roles of the solar ultraviolet, X-ray and particle radiation, and on cosmic-ray phenomena. Flights of earth satellites and space exploration were soon to be- come realities in any event. It was nevertheless a direct result of the agreement reached at Rome that the United States and the Soviet Union embarked at this time on what was to become perhaps man’s most adventurous scientific enterprise. It was of course destined to produce results far beyond the initial expectations of CSAGI. In the United States a national committee was established by the National Academy of Sciences, headed by Joseph Kaplan, and func- tioning with a secretariat headed by Hugh Odishaw as executive director. This committee became the focus of a large structure of technical panels, geographical committees, and other special groups, including a broad cross section of leading American geophysicists. The National Science Foundation, under technical guidance of the committee, prepared budget estimates and obtained congressional ap- propriations with which the large U.S. program was funded. Great logistic and operational contributions were made also by defense agencies, particularly for Antarctic expeditionary activities and rocket and satellite work. The IGY grew to the status of big business. Directly appropriated U.S. funds amounted to some $48.5 million, and the estimated value of contributions from Federal agencies was in the order of $500 million, including logistics, Antarctic operations, missilery, etc. The effort of the Soviet. Union was evidently equal to, and may have ex- ceeded, that of America. The contributions of numerous other coun- tries were impressive too—in a number of cases greater in relation to population or national wealth than the U.S. effort. A loose estimate of the total contributions of all nations would come to something like $2 billion. THE SCIENTIFIC RESULTS OF IGY No comprehensive account or full appraisal of the scientific results is yet possible. The IGY was primarily a period of observation and data gathering, and it will require years for the world scientific com- IGY IN RETROSPECT—ROBERTS 269 munity to analyze so much material—masses of data not yet even collected in any one place. At this time we must be content, there- fore, with some broad views suggestive of the scope of the work, with an indication of some major findings and a few of the implications. It is also impractical in a short account to refer to the many indi- viduals and institutions deserving credit for what has been done. In practically all disciplines the IGY work served dramatically to raise new problems and to broaden our realization of the vastness of the unknowns into which we are, so to speak, poking exploratory fingers. The IGY produced many more questions than it answered. Lloyd Berkner has said that it is like coming from outer space and finding a new planet. The IGY investigations fit well into groupings based on major relationships between disciplines. One such scheme comprises: (a) The upper atmosphere, adjacent space, and solar influences; (0) the heat and water budget of the earth, comprising meteorology and re- lated aspects of oceanography and glaciology; and (c) the solid earth. PHYSICS OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE, SPACE, AND THE SUN Interplanetary space suddenly became important—and useful. The IGY showed us much about it. We learned that there is no definite end to the atmosphere. In its vague outer regions, at perhaps 3,000 kilometers, it is almost indistinguishable from space itself. Solar and cosmic streams of elementary particles pass in undiminished intensity, forming with meteors the most important factors of the environment. The electrical and chemical activity of the upper atmosphere and of interplanetary space is due to X-rays and ultraviolet light, protons and electrons, meteors, and cosmic rays. There are present also elec- tric and magnetic fields due to the movements of charged particles, and everywhere there is gravity, the weakest of known forces but perhaps the most important in the universe. Atomic hydrogen is also everywhere, in densities of perhaps 6 to 600 atoms per cubic centi- meter. Previously unknown meteor streams were found, but the density of meteors and meteoritic dust, feared to imperil space vehicles, was found gratifyingly low. Within 10 earth diameters there exists an actual hydrogen atmos- phere, with a density at 500 kilometers as great as 100,000 atoms per cubic centimeter—this being ingeniously deduced from ultraviolet measurements made by nighttime and daylight rockets. Nearer the earth, atmospheric densities in the 200-500-kilometer band were found several times greater than previously supposed, as shown by observed retardation in the velocities of satellites. The density, moreover, exhibits strong variations supposedly due to the heating effect of particle collisions following solar bursts—this is suggested by satel- 270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 lite perturbations unquestionably related to the 27-day solar rotation, to specific solar flares, and to geomagnetic activity. The sun—tThe sun, generator and moderator of the physical forces affecting the earth, became a primary focus of attention. More than 100 patrols maintained watch upon it nearly every minute of the IGY, and 30 or more observatories, including 7 in the United States, photo- graphed the sun at 3-minute intervals, comprising in effect an unprece- dented motion-picture study. A notable achievement was the new order of fineness achieved in the photography of the granulation of the sun’s surface, employing a combination of telescope and automatic sun pointer from a balloon at 80,000 feet. Thus we have the most detailed solar record in history, and for the first time an almost com- plete record of hydrogen gas flares, the influence of which upon the earth’s ionosphere ranks among the most dramatic events in solar- terrestrial relationships. Sudden effects, caused by the bursts of ultraviolet light and soft X-rays, are seen in magnetic recordings, fadeouts of shortwave radio, enhancement of atmospherics (radio static), and reductions in cosmic radio noise level. The sun cooperated notably by achieving the highest level of activity ever known. On Christmas Day of 1957 the greatest number of sun- spots occurred since Galileo first reported them in 1612. Flares abounded. From this fabulous record a drastically modified concept of sun-earth relationships and of the conditions of interplanetary space has been derived. Many sources of solar radiation were identified. Remarkably fine and detailed photographs showed the ultraviolet ight source to be in patches closely associated with calcium plages (flocculi or clouds). Solar hydrogen flares are identified as a source of gamma radiation. Radio emissions of thermal generation were confirmed from coronal regions at much lower temperatures than previously believed possible. Radio noise emissions, noted to be associated with optical flares and energetic proton flux, await full explanation. Balloon measurements during eclipses have indicated the corona to be the source of X-rays, possibly an important factor in the causes of radio blackouts—the most widely known and troublesome of solar effects. Strong X-ray flux was discovered at 60,000 to 90,000 feet during auroral displays accompanying ionospheric disturbances. The magnetic fields of the sun are perhaps the most important prob- lem in solar physics, since therein can be found the forces that acceler- ate the solar particles affecting space and our upper atmosphere. A main magnetic field of minor intensity exists, with the property of puzzling polarity reversals that are presumed to be associated with the dynamic conditions of solar material. Intense local fields accom- pany sunspots and flares, and correlations between changes of field IGY IN RETROSPECT—ROBERTS Dil strength and flare occurrence have been found. Finely detailed map- ping of the solar magnetic fields showed such small intensities as 1 gauss or less, with resolution in the order of 1 second of arc. The corona is of vast extent and influence. Observations of electro- magnetic waves of various frequencies from radio stars at times of near conjunction with the sun indicated a coronal structure alined with residual magnetic fields out to distances of 20 or more solar radii. It has no definite limits and may extend indefinitely outward beyond the outer planets. It is believed to reach 7,000,000° F. in some parts, and Sidney Chapman has speculated that much thermal energy is, in fact, transferred to the earth’s atmosphere through direct contact with the thin but hot gases of the corona, perhaps at 350,000° F. Radiation belts—Space, we have seen, is far from empty. Among its features are the Van Allen radiation belts, intrinsically remarka- ble as well as an outstanding IGY discovery. Based on almost fan- tastically sparse probing up to the time of this writing, these two belts were tentatively described as annular shrouds about the earth, shaped by the typical force lines of the terrestrial magnetic- dipole field, and having northern and southern terminal cusps or edges pointing inward toward the auroral zones. Totally unexpected radiation intensities blocked the initial rocket probes with impos- sible counting loads, until Van Allen, with brilliant insight, provided modified counters. The vast outer belt of relatively soft, low-energy particles is most strongly developed in the zone between 3 and 4 earth radii distant from the earth’s center, with maximum intensity perhaps in excess of 25,000 counts per second. It consists of charged particles— protons and electrons—captured by the geomagnetic field from clouds of plasma spewed forth from the sun. The inner belt, 2,200 to 5,500 kilometers from the earth’s surface, consists of very high-energy par- ticles of an origin yet unknown but suspected to be the decay products of cosmic-ray collisions. The particle count is somewhat lower than that of the outer belt. It has been said that despite the vast extent and intensity of the Van Allen belts, which would require billions of X-ray machines to duplicate, the materials present would amount to perhaps one-fifteenth of 1 ounce of hydrogen! Not enough is known about the identity and energy of the particles to provide good estimates of the radiation intensities. The implications are tremendous. Notwithstanding our slender knowledge, it appears that the energy budget of the outer atmosphere and the theory of magnetic storms and aurorae will be dominated by these belts. Their presence means that many types of instruments must be shielded and that severe problems may confront human space travelers, although little is yet known of the biological effects. (It is because of this that one hears suggestions that future space voyagers 272 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 may have to take off from the polar regions, escaping, so to speak, through the hole of the doughnut.) An interesting possibility is that similar belts may become useful as aids in detection of magnetic fields of other planets. Cosmic rays.—Cosmic rays are another important factor of the space environment, with various consequences for the earth. ‘They are charged particles of ordinary matter like those propelled from the sun, but generally of cosmic origin and of vastly greater energies— some are believed to travel at speeds near that of light and to carry energy up to 10” electron volts—a billion times that achieved in man’s best particle accelerators. They may represent half of all the energy in the universe. Through rocket and satellite observations, we know that such high-energy, or primary, cosmic rays are characteristic of space above the atmosphere and that in collisions with atmospheric molecules they produce showers of breakdown products of lower energy, called secondary cosmic rays, which reach lower levels. The sun has been found to influence cosmic-ray behavior near the earth, confronting us with an important factor in the study of magnetic space fields and magnetic storm effects. Cosmic rays display diminished intensity in general during sunspot activity, but there are shorter period fluctuations not so related. High-altitude aircraft observations of cosmic rays provided evidence leading to some refinement of our ideas about the configuration of the geomagnetic field at those and higher altitudes. High-atmosphere phenomena.—Our outer atmosphere is thus under radiation of various types—X-rays, ultraviolet light, hard and soft cosmic rays, and charged particles from space or the radiation belts, which enter along lines of magnetic force. A whole family of related phenomena results. Under radiation the atmospheric gases produce the luminous effects of aurorae and airglow. Ionization of the thin outer gases occurs in layers comprising the ionosphere. These sheets of ions reflect or refract electromagnetic waves, providing the basis of long-distance radio communication, and they support electric-current systems and magnetic fields in grand patterns. When the radiation becomes irregular, as at times of solar disturb- ances, the ionization is chaotic. Radio signals fade or black out, and the changing magnetic fields produce geomagnetic unrest and mag- netic storms. Solar activity, radio-wave propagation disturbances, auroral displays, and magnetic storms had therefore to be considered together in broadly comprehensive views during the IGY. The tonosphere.—This feature is in fact a series of concentric shells of ionized gases about the earth in configurations determined by the gas densities and chemical compositions. IGY observers carried out continuous intensive monitoring of the ionosphere, using vertical-inci- IGY IN RETROSPECT—ROBERTS 273 dence and oblique radio probes or soundings from the ground to deter- mine ionospheric conditions by echo recordings. They observed radio- wave propagation characteristics under all manner of conditions, and they sought to find the extent, magnitude, and location of electric currents comprising streams of the ionized particles. The ionospheric electric currents are particularly intense and com- plex in the auroral zones, but they exist everywhere in some form. Interesting features of local ionization and a strong electric current were found in the close vicinity of the magnetic equator. Much was learned about the neutral and ionized gases of the ionospheric re- gions—helpful information in the problem of determining the best working radiofrequencies to suit conditions. Scatter propagation of radio waves, often useful despite disturbed conditions, was studied intensively. Among the techniques responsible for such findings were geomagnetic studies and the analysis of radio signals from earth satellites. Geomagnetism.—The geomagnetic program of the IGY was di- rected mainly toward the investigation of magnetic storms and other transient phenomena related to the ionospheric electric currents. Special arrays of recording stations were used to discover the dimen- sions of the magnetic fields in question, and thus to describe the cur- rent streams and systems. Among such arrays were ingenious “dif- ferential magnetographs” designed to record the field gradients across station arrays continuously as they fiuctuate. Stations in several places close to the magnetic Equator strongly indicated the intensity and extent of the previously mentioned equa- torial electrojet—a powerful concentrated stream of current almost precisely along this zero-dip line. It exists chiefly on the sunlit side of the earth, and it must result from ionization by ultraviolet light or X-rays, rather than by energetic particles, which presumably can- not cross the magnetic field lines to that region. Electron and ion counts were made in the body of the current by rocket firings. The circuit return mechanism has not been determined. The large number of special IGY magnetic observatories, partic- ularly in Antarctica and other new places, provided working material for extensive investigations into many aspects of natural electric and magnetic phenomena and their relation to solar events. For the first time they furnished evidence of essentially simultaneous worldwide magnetic effects, and served to round out our global concepts. Tel- luric currents (in the earth’s crust), the result of induction from the ionospheric currents, were found in unexpectedly great intensity and wide distribution, finely dissected by local ground conditions. The combined effects of ionospheric and telluric currents posed complex new problems impeding analysis attempts. 274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Pioneer work was done to disclose the secrets of geomagnetic field oscillations in the range between 1 and 100 cycles per second—a new area of research. Other experiments were designed to shed new light, if possible, on the old and unresolved question whether any real cor- relation of meteorological and geomagnetic effects exists. The Rus- sian nonmagnetic ship Zarya discovered many unknown magnetic anomalies in ocean depths. Meanwhile, the main magnetic-field anomalies were said by Russian magneticians to be features of the depth of homogeneous magnetization, ruling out ferromagnetism of the crust as a source. Aurora and airglow.—Auroral studies, difficult in a sense because by nature they do not submit to quantitative analysis, have never- theless been prominent because of the public interest in the auroral displays and because amateur contributions are possible on a wide scale. The program included photography of various kinds, spec- troscopy, position-finding observations, studies of extent and simul- taneity, and even probes by rocket shots. In general, it was found that aurorae are continuous throughout the extent of an isoclinic or magnetic dip line on the dark side of the earth. Motions within the aurorae progress from west to east—in this respect providing an unanswered mystery. A variety of nonpolar and less spectacular aurora is the airglow. Solar energy is stored, as in a huge chemical reaction chamber, in the outer fringes of the atmosphere, where the energy synthesizes many chemical compounds. These gradually decay, emitting light, the wavelengths of which indicate the particular reaction. On moonless nights, the luminescence may contribute substantially to the night light—perhaps as much as the stars themselves. The airglow is many times stronger in the hours when the upper atmosphere can receive direct sunlight. The program for its study included expanded net- works of ground stations as well as instrumented rocket flights for the exploration of the levels at which the various spectral lines are generated. Vast energy is involved which man may one day utilize with sufficient understanding of the circumstances. Auroral displays may become very widespread following violent solar events, as in the case of the outstanding solar flare of February 9, 1958. This flare and its consequences were among the most in- tensively observed cosmic phenomena of al] time and may have been the most important single event of the IGY. One day later, on the 10th, auroral displays as high as 800 kilometers and visible as far south as Cuba followed the entry of the earth into the great plasma cloud produced by the flare. Protracted worldwide disturbances to communications by radio, as well as by land telegraph lines and ocean cables, accompanied this IGY IN RETROSPECT—ROBERTS Zt disturbance. The play of magnetic fields in the upper atmosphere induced potentials in transatlantic cables as great as 2,650 volts. From the moment of discovery of the original flare until the return of normal conditions several days later, all IGY scientists interested in space and the upper atmosphere had unexcelled opportunity to make coordinated observations, demonstrating the high value of the synoptic approach. Artificial radiation effects —An event of great interest, but not part of the IGY, showed, on August 1, 1958, that atomic bursts in the ionospheric regions are capable of producing artificial radiation and other widespread effects matching those of Nature itself. Sebi tings! er in odai aainte Uniieize tik oh Boivehalhanuiecor aww Jeo fa BE adhe, pat ovr al: aeoniged dovenohbaremalyteyan otaw dat Bone aY porte pen) wol nin anieh feolhihy to rod Vigwie allt ion bree sient “0 mine vestoe woietonny, segenigas tof adienort auuttyr i brandi see 6 oath i at i pity 4a re oe pal om leyua ott och: Lo daq-otnen fled me notinreiando yatiy divoreteaert sronleiaebiont? sotinibaw rated att du dor relitnord AS oft, ‘9 retborett a 440, dr4 la Ary tol cake wetiak cp isat ogy ccimal “int arieeed ect Tine 7 in deval seiog aol-bas rolviaiw toveagishiat pacnimae og veo ata vdivohtpxe,asmitie -veelow tad? awoileyrosaicl tuo dorks obaly- mS m 5 8 m.c- ¢ cc = vU = a Qe at nO) eae ee ee DITOGVLAW LVS "g TUNSIT i O| NOILVIA3G NOON RHYTHMIC NATURE OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS—BROWN 405 with all the natural periodicities of the atmosphere imbedded in it, still impressing itself upon the organism. Living things might con- ceivably possess inherited, regular rhythms, but it is quite incon- ceivable that they are born with an inherited plan of all the erratic temperature, barometric-pressure, and background-radiation fluctua- tions which are to occur during their lifetime. So far we don’t know what the specific nature of the factcr or factors may be which are directly effective on the living organism. This is one of the most important and exciting problems before us in our continuing research. But to suggest further that the forces involved in our problem may be in part determined by other forces arriving on our earth even from outside of our own solar system, we have obtained some striking simi- larities of our biological metabolic rhythms, with fluctuations in cosmic radiation raining on our outer atmosphere predominantly from dis- tant outer space. ‘This discovery was the outcome of a comparison of metabolic daily cycles in potatoes, seaweed, and fiddler crabs during the spring and summer of the two years, 1954 and 1955. Between these two years, the daily metabolic cycles of all three species seemed to have, in good measure, turned upside down. In the fiddler crabs, for example (as shown in the upper solid curve in fig. 9, the highest rate of metabolism for the day in July 1954 was about 2 p.m.; in July 1955, as seen in the lower solid curve of figure 9, this was near the time of day of the lowest rate in the daily metabolic cycles. In searching for a possible difference that might have occurred in some subtle external physical factor between the two years, some data upon the fluctuations in cosmic radiation occurring at the specific times of these METABOLISM RADIATION 6 AM 12 6PM Figure 9.—Comparison of the average daily cycles of cosmic radiation (broken lines) and fiddler crab metabolism (solid lines) for a single summer month in each year, 1954 (upper pair of curves) and 1955 (lower pair of curves). 406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 studies were lent to me by Professor Simpson of the Enrico Fermi Institute of the University of Chicago. It was clearly evident that just as the crab daily cycles seemed to have been inverted between these two specific periods of study, so had the cosmic-ray cycles for the same two periods (the two broken-line curves). And furthermore, the general forms of the crab and radiation cycles were striking mir- ror images of one another. Similarly with the potatoes and seaweed, the forms of the metabolic cycles we had measured seemed clearly related in some manner to the cosmic-ray cycles. It is obvious that the specific forms of these cosmic-ray cycles could not have become evident to the living things in terms of fluctuations in any physical factors which are commonly conceded to influence them, such as light, humidity, and temperature. This would hold true even were the organisms exposed to the natural fluctuations of an open meadow. Clearly then, there must be still unidentified physical factors affecting life. And it now seems reasonable to postulate that these latter factors are very important to the living things in the timing of their rhythmic processes, or, in other words, in the operation of their clocks and calendars. The thesis supported in this article, namely, that during the timing of cycle lengths of the rhythms in animals and plants in so-called “constant conditions” the organisms are still continuously receiving from the external environment information about the natural geo- physical cycles, removes some of the romantic glamour inherent in the alternative view, that all living things must possess within them uncannily accurate clocks capable of measuring, independently, periods ranging in length from the day to the year. On the other hand, its implications are tremendous with respect to the potentialities involved through the demonstration that living things are sensitively responding to additional kinds of stimuli at energy levels so low that we have hitherto considered the living organism completely oblivious of them. These latter potentialities may soon loom importantly in many areas of biology and medicine, especially in such problems as animal navigation and behavior. The demonstration that the physical environment of living things is organized temporally in terms of still unknown subtle and highly pervasive forces which the living organisms can resolve encourages one to speculate that there may be some comparable subtle and per- vasive spatial organization of the environment which is contributing at least in a small way toward accounting for geographical distribu- tions or periodic migrations of organisms. The Survival of Animals in Hot Deserts’ By E. B. EDNEY Professor of Zoology University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia My arm in this lecture is to consider the difficulties which confront animals living in hot dry environments, and to try to answer the question as to why some animals are more successful than others in overcoming them. The problems for all are the same: how to prevent desiccation and how to keep cool. But the solutions are various, and depend upon the morphological and physiological equipment of the animals concerned. The process of keeping cool may involve loss of water. But water in hot climates may be in short supply, and in any case water loss is necessarily incurred in such vital processes as respiration, excretion, lactation (in mammals), egg production, and so forth. A conflict is therefore immediately apparent between the necessity to conserve water for vital processes and to transpire water for cooling. It will be part of my purpose to see how these opposing needs are brought into equilibrium in different kinds of animals. Now the problems confronting animals in hot deserts are essentially the same as some of the problems experienced in a less acute form by all terrestrial animals during their evolution from water to land life. We must therefore see the former problem in a wider setting, and take the discussion in two stages. First, we may review, in fairly general terms, the problems of terrestrial life, and note how different groups of animals have tackled them. Second, in the light of this informa- tion, we may consider in greater detail the solutions of the more acute problems posed by extreme terrestrial conditions. There have been major invasions of the land by three great phyla vertebrates, arthropods, and mollusks—as well as minor invasions by other animals such as flatworms and annelid worms. Within the arthopods there has certainly been more than one invasion. Insects and spiders probably emerged separately; crustaceans certainly 1Inaugural lecture given in the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Re- printed by permission of the College and the Oxford University Press. 407 408 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 emerged more recently, and in several distinct groups. Because of their different evolutionary histories, each of these groups of animals has a different set of potentialities for life on land. We shall try to assess the significance of these differences. THE PROBLEMS OF LAND LIFE What are the problems concerned in the evolution of a land fauna? The comparatively rare medium, air, affords no support for the body, and calls for a complete reorganization of the means of locomotion. Gills, which are very efficient organs of respiration in water, collapse in air and present too small a surface for the uptake of oxygen, so that respiratory organs have to be remodeled. The respiratory mem- branes themselves, however, must be kept moist and thin, because oxygen does not diffuse rapidly enough through a dry integument. Changes in metabolic machinery, too, are necessary. Thus, the waste products of nitrogen metabolism can most economically be excreted as ammonia, and aquatic animals use this method, for although am- monia is highly toxic, plenty of water is available to flush it away. On dry land, water is not so plentiful, and ammonia cannot be used. The simple process of discharging large numbers of reproductive cells into the environment for external fertilization must be replaced by internal fertilization, which in turn demands complicated behavior patterns to insure association of the sexes. The eggs of land animals, once fertilized, cannot be discharged and left to fend for themselves. They would dry up. Therefore they must be enclosed in impermeable shells and provided with food and with metabolic machinery for con- verting ammonia into nontoxic and preferably insoluble subtances which can be stored during the period of incubation. The fact that air is hardly ever saturated with water vapor, and is often rather dry, means that a terrestrial animal is in danger of losing water continuously by evaporation. Finally, the terrestrial environment is one in which changes in temperature and humidity occur over a much wider range and more rapidly than they do in water. These changes must be tolerated, controlled, or avoided. Let us now consider how these problems have been solved by different kinds of animals. RESPIRATION The vertebrates solved the problem of respiration in two stages— first the amphibians developed an internal lung, which was rather inefficient and had to be supplemented by cutaneous respiration. This involved a moist skin. Then the reptiles perfected the lung and consequently could afford to develop an impermeable integument. Respiration in land arthropods is carried out in a number of dif- ferent ways. Insects, perhaps the most successful group, have ANIMAL SURVIVAL IN HOT DESERTS—EDNEY 409 evolved the highly efficient tracheal system. This consists of numer- ous branching tubules leading air directly to all parts of the body from a small number of external openings, the spiracles, which are capable of being closed. Occlusion of the spiracles reduces loss of water from inside the tracheae when the insect is at rest and oxygen is required only in small quantities. Because of this respiratory system it has been possible to reduce cutaneous absorption of oxygen to a minimum, so that the integument need not be permeable to water and is, in fact, efficiently waterproofed. Although the total surface area of the animal is of the order of 5,000 times greater than that of the spiracular openings, as much as 60 to 70 percent of the total water lost by transpiration passes through the spiracles. Spiders, another very successful group of arthropods, have not developed the tracheal system very effectively, and they rely upon “book lungs” (the term is self-explanatory) situated in pits whose openings can also be closed. The system is good enough to provide for normal oxygen requirements, and the integument can be water- proofed; but spiders cannot indulge in long bursts of great activity because they rapidly run out of oxygen. Another class of arthropods with pretensions to land life are the Crustacea, and these animals present a very different picture. They have never evolved an effective respiratory system for use on land. Woodlice absorb oxygen through external, leaflike organs which are but little modified from the gills of their aquatic relatives. Tran- spiration from the gills constitutes some 40 percent of the total tran- spiration, and the absolute rate of transpiration is much higher than it is in insects. Some woodlice, indeed, have developed short bunches of internal tubules in the gills, and these are the most “terrestrial” of the group. But in all of them absorption of oxygen also occurs through the general body surface, and the integument is much more permeable to water than is that of insects. This is true only in humid air, however; otherwise the outer layers of the skin become too dry, and measurements show that the effect of exposure to very dry air may be to cause death by asphyxiation rather than by desiccation (Edney and Spencer, 1955). NITROGEN EXCRETION As regards nitrogen excretion, an interesting relation between the availability of water in the habitat (particularly during embryonic development) and the nature of the end product has been pointed out by several authors (Needham, 1929; Delaunay, 1931). We have seen that in land animals the waste products of nitrogen metabolism cannot be excreted as ammonia because this is a highly toxic and highly soluble substance. More wasteful methods have to be adopted, and ammonia is converted into urea, uric acid, or other 410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 product even though this means wasting valuable carbon. Ammonia contains no carbon, urea contains one atom of carbon to every two of nitrogen excreted, and uric acid contains five carbon atoms for every four of nitrogen excreted. But there is less hydrogen in rela- tion to nitrogen in a molecule of urea than in ammonia, and still less in uric acid. By substituting urea or uric acid for ammonia, water is saved, and this is the most important consideration. Fur- thermore, both urea and uric acid are nontoxic, and the latter is also nearly insoluble in water, so that no free water is needed for its elimination. The principle may be illustrated by a few examples. Lungfish are normally ammonotelic, that is, they excrete ammonia; but when they aestivate in dry mud, and water is short, they excrete urea. The semiterrestrial Amphibia are ureotelic (excreting urea), but their larvae, which are fully aquatic, excrete ammonia, and the African genus Xenopus, which is aquatic in the adult stage as well, remains ammonotelic throughout its life. Birds and reptiles are uricotelic (excreting uric acid). They develop the necessary metabolic ma- chinery by necessity in the egg stage, when insoluble uric acid has much to be said in its favor, and retain the system throughout their lives. Mammals, during their embryonic stages, have the advantage of a good supply of water in the blood of the parent, and they use urea as the end product of nitrogen metabolism throughout life. Ac- cording to Needham (1935), gastropods exemplify the principle very well—marine and fresh-water forms store but little uric acid, inter- mediate littoral forms store rather more, and terrestrial forms most. Insects excrete uric acid. This process may again have been im- posed by the cleidoic egg, but it serves these animals in the adult state remarkably well, and insects which live in dry surroundings lose hardly any water as a result of nitrogen excretion. Spiders use a similarly insoluble nitrogen compound, guanin, which serves the same purpose. Nitrogen excretion, then, is one of the numerous examples which demonstrate evolution at a physiological level. But, like so many generalizations in biological science, the principle does not cover all the known cases. Thus woodlice, which are terrestrial Crustacea, and which might therefore be expected to excrete urea or even uric acid, do not do so. Most of their waste nitrogen is ammonia. One wonders why, particularly as the enzyme chain leading to the forma- tion of uric acid is present, for indeed a little uric acid is formed, though more is found in the fresh-water genus Aseld/us than in ter- restrial isopods. TRANSPIRATION We may now consider another source of water loss associated with life on land: transpiration from the general body surface. In this ANIMAL SURVIVAL IN HOT DESERTS—EDNEY 411 connection the significance of size, which will increasingly concern us in what follows, becomes apparent. In large animals little importance need be attached to the preven- tion of water loss by evaporation, because a given rate of evaporation per unit area can proceed for a longer time in a large animal than in a small one before the total water content falls to a lethal level. A flea could tolerate a transpiration rate of 5 mg./cm.?/hour for about 15 minutes before losing 10 percent of its water, but a man could tolerate 4,500 times this rate of loss for a similar period and suffer the same proportional loss of water. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that insects have developed a highly efficient method of waterproofing their integument. Insects have a very long terrestrial history, and their origins are obscure, but in this group physiological adaptations have been perfected and refined as far as possible within the general arthropod pattern. The integument has been waterproofed by means of a very thin but prob- ably continuous layer of a waxlike substance composed of a mixture of paraffins and alcohols with carbon chain lengths from about 8 upward. Since Wigglesworth (1945) first demonstrated the presence of these cuticular waxes, there has been much work and speculation devoted to finding out their nature and properties. At first it was thought that they underwent a rather sudden physical change, which permitted much higher rates of transpiration above a characteristic critical temperature. This was held to represent a form of tempera- ture control. However, recent work suggests that there is no sudden increase in permeability with temperature (Holdgate and Seal, 1956; Mead-Briggs, 1956), but a gradual one over the range, and that at biologically significant temperatures the rate of transpiration is too low to contribute greatly to cooling. There is still very much to be discovered about the nature of these waterproofing substances. We do not even know whether the rise in permeability with temperature is due to a progressive “melting” of the constituents or to simple physical properties known to be associated with activated diffusion through inanimate membranes, or both. However, it is true to say that if the insect integument were permeable, no amount of water conservation by other means would be of any avail. It is instructive to compare the situation in insects with that in woodlice, whose evolutionary history is very different. Woodlice arrived on land comparatively recently—the earliest fossils date from the Upper Eocene, some 60 million years ago—while insects occur as far back as the Devonian, some 300 million years ago. Woodlice, though they are the only crustaceans whose entire life is spent on 2Since this was first written, Beament (1959) has obtained further evidence in favor of a “‘critical temperature.”’ 412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 land, are still limited by crustacean anatomical and physiological systems. No wax layer has been successfully demonstrated in the integument; neither does the latter show any increase in permeability with rising temperature. Transpiration rates are generally a good deal higher than in most insects. KEEPING COOL Associated with transpiration is still another problem posed by life on Jand—that is the problem of existence at extreme temperatures. There are several ways of dealing with high temperatures. They may be avoided by living in a cryptozoic niche below the ground, under crevices, in caves, and so forth. This procedure is open only to small animals and is, in any case, a confession of failure. Alterna- tively, they may simply be tolerated, and this is one of the best solu- tions for small animals. Thus some insects can withstand temperatures as high as 60° C. (140° F.) for 20 minutes, and many can withstand temperatures well above 40° C. (104° F.) for long periods. Neither of these devices involves loss of water. The most satisfactory solution is to control the body temperature at a fixed level, as the higher vertebrates, birds and mammals, have done. This of course involves loss of water by transpiration, and the solution is open only to animals above a certain size, as the fol- lowing considerations show. Assuming that each square meter of the surface of an animal must evaporate 0.6 kg. of water per hour to maintain the temperature constant in warm dry air, a value which has been found for animals weighing from 96 to 16 kg. (Dill, Bock, and Edwards, 1938; Adolph and Dill, 1938), then the percentage of the total body weight lost per hour can be calculated approximately, and the answer varies from 0.77 percent (camel) to 105 percent (wood- lice) (fig. 1). Clearly no animal can lose 105 percent of its weight per hour for long, so that this method of keeping cool is available only for large animals. A rather unsatisfactory compromise, open to small animals with permeable skins, is to use the evaporation of water to cool the body for short, critical periods. This is in no sense temperature regula- tion; it is the inevitable result of having a permeable skin, for at high temperatures the rate of transpiration rises owing to the greater drying power of the air, and the difference between body tempera- ture and ambient temperature is therefore greater. Such an effect has been observed in several land animals, including amphibians, mol- lusks, worms, and woodlice. WATER ECONOMY—A SYNTHESIS Let us now attempt something of a synthesis, in order to appreci- ate the significance of these various sources of water loss. In partic- ANIMAL SURVIVAL IN HOT DESERTS—EDNEY 413 3 ye) O©Woodlouse O0:0002 kg. (105%) zs de 7 Ov Mouse 0-021 kg. (21:5 %) 2 © Rat O1 kg. (12-8%) <5 fe] s 2 Rabbit 2:0 kg. (4-77 %e) ° 2 Dog 16 kg.(2:38%) © ° ~ Man 70 kg. (147%) Od Donkey 95 kg. (133%) 1 1) Ey Camel 800 kg. (0:77%) © > rf Le?) ° =f 4 3 2 i fo) TREES 3 Log Body weight Ficure 1.—The relation between body weight and the amount of water which must evap- orate per hour from the body to preserve a constant temperature in desert conditions. (Date in part from Schmidt-Nielsen, 1954.) ular we want to know whether or not each source of loss is inevitable, and whether it is harmful or beneficial. Loss of water associated with nitrogen excretion is the only one that has no possible compensation. The heat loss involved in evap- oration is in this case of no use to the animal, for evaporation occurs at a distance from the body. Water loss from the respiratory surfaces is inevitable. It may be reduced to a minimum if the respiratory surfaces are tucked away within the body and are capable of occlusion, as they are in insects and spiders; but where the respiratory membranes are external, as in wood- lice, or where there is a ventilated respiratory system, as in verte- brates, the loss of water is considerable. Most land vertebrates are compelled to ventilate the respiratory membranes on account of their size, and in mammals and birds because of the high metabolic rate necessary to support a constant high temperature. But this source of loss may have its compensations, for evaporation of water occurs at the surface of the respiratory membranes, and therefore with- draws heat from the body itself. A small loss of water by transpiration from the general body sur- face is also inevitable, for no integument is entirely impermeable to water. In small animals surface transpiration must be reduced as far as possible if the animals are to exist in dry habitat. If trans- 414 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 piration is not reduced, surface cooling may occur and be taken advantage of, but the animals will be confined to the eryptozoic niche. Larger animals can afford surface transpiration, and in normal en- vironments this may be used as a temperature-regulating mechanism. It seems, then, that three interdependent variables have to be con- sidered: an animal’s size, the nature of its respiratory system, and the permeability of its integument. We should expect that while certain combinations of these factors would permit life in fully ter- restrial conditions, other combinations would forbid it. Thus small size combined with an occlusible respiratory system and an imper- meable integument is a satisfactory combination for land life; large size, a ventilated respiratory system, and a permeable integument is also satisfactory, but other combinations are not. To these inter- dependent factors must be added a number of others which are not interdependent—that is to say, their optimum value lies always at one end of the range. Thus it is always advantageous in hot dry sur- roundings to lose as little water with nitrogen excretion as possible, and it is always advantageous to have a high upper lethal tempera- ture. Optimum values of these factors are, of course, not always attainable. The evolutionary history of an animal may forbid it. Thus a mammal owes its success to homoeothermy—constant tem- perature—and to permit the body temperature to rise as high as it may in some insects would adversely affect the whole organization. When this happens, the delicate mechanism of the brain is the first to suffer. Before we examine the validity of these principles in real situations, something must be said of the other side of the picture, that is, gain of water. This may be achieved by straightforward drinking, when water is available, or by taking in water with the food. A few animals can absorb water by rectum (some woodlice do this) or through the skin. But these are comparatively unimportant for our purpose. A few arthropods can absorb water vapor from unsaturated air. This is a remarkable and rather rare phenomenon, but one which may have a wider significance in water conservation than is apparent. It has been reported in ticks and certain beetle larvae in air with a relative humidity of 80 percent or above, and in flea larvae in even drier air (references in Edney, 1957). Now the osmotic pressure of the body fluids of insects and ticks is in equilibrium with air at about 99 percent relative humidity. There can therefore be no ques- tion of water flowing down an osmotic gradient. The mechanism of this active transport has not been demonstrated, but a further piece of information may be relevant. There is some evidence, obtained by the use of heavy water, that water in the body fluids of an insect is in continuous interchange with water vapor in the air outside. If this ANIMAL SURVIVAL IN HOT DESERTS—EDNEY 415 were confirmed, it would seem that besides the known effect of evapo- ration in removing water from the body, there must be another mechanism drawing it in. Possibly these two mechanisms are at work all the time, the net effect either of uptake or loss, depending upon the relative efficiency of the two processes in a given individual under given conditions. The nature of the inward force, if it exists, and the conditions in which it is apparent, are quite unknown. Another source of water, an important and a universal one, is the water of metabolism. Al] animals necessarily produce water when they oxidize food containing hydrogen, and indeed the amount of water produced may be greater than the initial weight of the food. Thus 100 g. of fat, completely oxidized, yield 107 g. of water. This is the reason for the remarkable observation that certain beetle larvae may increase in weight during starvation (Mellanby, 1932). But the process is in no way an adaptation to dry conditions. It is com- mon to all animals. The adaptation consists in conserving, by other means such as we have already discussed, water from metabolism to- gether with water from any other source. LIFE IN DESERTS THE DESERT ENVIRONMENT Let us now consider extreme terrestrial conditions, taking a hot desert as an example. What is known about the physiology of the animals that live there, and what remains to be discovered ? In a desert the surface temperature of the ground is very high during the daytime. It is often higher than that of the air above it, owing to the absorption of radiant energy from the sun. During the night, surface temperatures fall very steeply because the sparse cover of vegetation permits rapid radiation of heat to the sky, and the air is then warmer than the ground. At all times temperatures below the ground and in caves are much less extreme than surface temperatures. Humidity is usually very low, and this, combined with high tempera- ture, leads to rapid evaporation of water from moist surfaces. But because of the great fall in temperature at night, the relative humidity rises and evaporation is greatly reduced. If the surface temperature falls sufficiently low, dew may be formed. In these circumstances, during the daytime heat is gained by an animal largely by radiation from the sun and from the ground, but also significantly as a result of metabolism, especially in large animals. Little heat is gained by conduction from the ground. The air temperature may be above or below that of the animal’s surface and heat flows by conduction ac- cordingly. Heat is lost by evaporation of water and by conduction to the air if the latter is below skin temperature. 536608—60-——28 416 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 MAMMALS There is by now a good deal of information about mammals which live in deserts, reviewed by K. and B. Schmidt-Nielsen (1954). In these animals the effect of size on water economy becomes at once apparent. Small species such as the African jerboa or the American kangaroo rat can avoid extremes of temperature and dryness by living in burrows. They do so and emerge to feed at night only. On the other hand, being mammals they must lose water both in respiration and in excretion. Yet these animals can exist indefinitely on perfectly dry food and no water. The answer lies in certain quantitative changes in their water physiology, not in the invention of any qualita- tively new process. They conserve the water of metabolism better than other mammals in several ways. First, they do not sweat, and their rate of transpiration is less than half that of the ordinary white rat. It seems likely that the commonly observed absence of sweat glands in small mammals receives a general explanation here: it re- sults from the necessity imposed by their relatively large surface to conserve water. Jerboas lose in evaporation from the respiratory surfaces only half of the water lost by man per unit oxygen uptake, perhaps by exhaling air at a lower temperature so that it requires less water to saturate it. They excrete only very small quantities of very concentrated urine, and they lose very little water with the feces, which are de- posited practically dry. These small animals do not use water to maintain a constant tem- perature in the desert for the good reason that in air at 40° C. they would have to lose 20 percent of their body weight per hour. But there is an emergency procedure, for if the body temperature ap- proaches the lethal level (about 42° C.) copious salivation occurs, which wets the fur of the chin and throat and thus reduces the body temperature. This can only be effective for a short time, however, because the loss of water is great and soon leads to desiccation of the tissues. With a large mammal such as a camel it is a very different matter. These animals cannot escape the heat of the day; they must either tolerate it, or use water to prevent a rise in body temperature. Here, therefore, we find a shift in the balance of physiological mechanisms, again only quantitatively, but in relation to the possibilities and limitations imposed by size. The camel does not store water. It exists for periods of a fortnight or more on dry food alone by tolerating a much greater depletion in body weight than most other mammals can. Thus a camel tolerates a loss of water equal to nearly a quarter of its body weight (100 kg. out of 450 kg.) as compared with something like 12 percent in man. ANIMAL SURVIVAL IN HOT DESERTS—EDNEY 417 At the end of such a period of desiccation the camel will drink sufli- cient water to restore its body weight (but no more) in a few minutes. How is it that a camel can tolerate a much larger proportional loss of water than a man? In most mammals subjected to high tempera- tures in dry air, desiccation proceeds slowly while the temperature re- mains rather constant. But owing to loss of water from the blood, the latter becomes gradually more viscous. This puts extra strain on the heart, which, at a certain degree of viscosity, cannot circulate the blood sufficiently rapidly to carry away metabolic heat to the skin. At this point the temperature rises rapidly and death follows sud- denly. The phenomenon has been termed “explosive heat death” by Adolph. In camels, however, explosive heat death is rather skillfully avoided. There is a physiological mechanism, whose nature is so far unknown, which ensures that water is lost from the tissues only, while the blood volume, and hence its viscosity, remain constant. In a camel which lost 50 liters of water, reduction in blood volume was found to be less than 1 liter. Because of this ability and also because of its relatively small sur- face area, the camel can afford to sweat and thus to reduce the body temperature. Furthermore it avoids undue stress in this respect by allowing its temperature to vary over a greater range than other mammals do. In man, the daily fluctuation in temperature is about 1° C., but the camel’s temperature falls to 34° C. during the cool of the night and rises slowly throughout the day to as much as 41° C. To raise 450,000 g. through 7° C. needs a lot of heat. Only after this temperature is reached does sweating commence. The old story that the camel stores water in its hump has by now been decently buried, but it has been replaced by another almost equally fallacious: that the fat of which the hump is composed is essentially a water store itself. As we have seen, it is perfectly valid chemistry to say that 100 g. of fat when completely oxidized yield 107 g. of water. But in order to oxidize the fat and make the water available, extra oxygen must be used, and this involves extra loss of water through the lungs to an amount which just about cancels any gain from the oxidation of fat. No, the camel’s hump is a foodstore, just as any other fat deposit is, but there is an interesting reason for its taking that form. As Schmidt-Nielsen has pointed out, it is curious that in many mammals that live in hot climates, fat is not distributed as a subcutaneous layer, but is restricted to one large deposit. In camels this is the hump, in Indian and Zebu cattle, the same; in fat-tailed sheep it is the tail. Now when water evaporates, cooling occurs by the absorption of heat from the immediate environment. But if the animal’s sur- face is thermally insulated from the rest of the body by a poor heat 418 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 conductor such as fat, nearly all the heat absorbed will be taken from the air, and the body temperature will hardly be affected. If the skin is thin, however, with a rich blood supply and no insulating fatty layer, heat may readily be withdrawn from the tissues. The con- centration of fat into one depot allows the rest of the surface of the animal to act as a radiator in this way. Fur is also an advantage to desert animals in preventing overheat- ing, for it acts as a heat barrier preventing solar radiation from reaching the skin, and also in slowing down the conduction of heat from the environment to the animal. On the same grounds, clothing for man is an advantage in strong sunshine by preventing the absorp- tion of radiant energy by the skin, and thus conserving water. But the fur must be sufficiently well ventilated to allow evaporation of sweat to occur at the base of the hairs so that heat may be drawn from the animal itself. If the fur is so thick that sweat travels through the layer in liquid form, evaporation occurs at the outer surface, heat is withdrawn from the air and the animal does not benefit. We may compare the camel’s performance with that of a man and a dog. Both these animals begin to evaporate water as soon as the body temperature rises above normal; man from the skin, and the dog from the respiratory surfaces. In this respect they are at a dis- advantage as compared with the camel, which as we have seen allows its body temperature to rise. In man, sweating increases with increasing heat load, and may reach 1.5 liters an hour. It continues at this high rate in spite of progressive desiccation. Renal loss decreases until the maximum urine concentration is reached, but this still involves about 0.5 liter of water a day. Maximum urine concentration in man is not very high, but even a doubling of the permissible concentration would not be very effective in desert conditions, for up to 50 times as much water is lost by sweating, and a saving of 250 ml. would be insignificant. When supplied with water, however, man’s capacity for physical work in deserts is better than that of the dog. This was made evi- dent in an experiment (Dill, Bock, and Edwards, 1933) where a man and a dog walked a course in a desert when the air temperature was about 40° C. (104° F.). The man made five rounds, covering 20 miles, while the dog was completely exhausted after 16 miles. The man’s skin temperature remained at about 34° C., but that of the dog rose, as a result of isolation, to about 45° C. After each round of 4 miles, both were offered water. The dog drank sufficient to restore its original body weight, but the man drank porportionally less and lost 3 kg. out of 75 kg. in 7 hours, which is equivalent to 4.2 percent of his body weight. There is an interesting reason for this. The sweat of man, although less concentrated than blood serum, con- ANIMAL SURVIVAL IN HOT DESERTS—EDNEY 419 tains salt, and he drank only enough water to restore the normal blood salt concentration. The dog transpires from the lungs and thus loses no salt, so that it was able, by drinking, to restore all the water lost without lowering its blood-salt concentration. Dogs have the advantage of men in this respect. Total evaporation from the dog was 2.6 percent of body weight per hour, that from the man was 1.74 percent; but if measured in terms of surface area, evaporation from the dog was lower: namely, 0.65 1./hr./m.? against 0.72 l.hr/m.? from the man. Since the body temperature of both remained constant, the difference in evaporation per unit area should reflect a difference in heat load Heat is gained by metabolism, radiation, and conduction from the air. Metabolism is proportional to surface area in both animals and therefore adds an equal load to each; the radiation load, however, is lower in the dog be- cause its skin temperature is higher. Thus when the surface tempera- ture of the environment is 65° C. and a dog’s skin temperature is 45° C., the gradient is 20° C. In man, with a skin temperature of 35° C., the gradient is steeper. Again, heat flow by conduction to the air is outward in the dog (45° C. skin temperature and 40° C. air temperature), whereas in man heat flow is in the reverse direction. In this situation the dog, by not sweating from the skin and therefore having a higher skin temperature, had an advantage over man as far as water economy is concerned. However, long-term advantages in water conservation do not necessarily correspond with conditions of immediate comfort. A skin temperature of 45° C. in man would not be tolerable for long. Strictly comparable figures for camels are not available, but the overriding fact is that a camel can tolerate a loss of water up to nearly 25 percent of its body weight while a man succumbs after losing 10 to 12 percent. Summarizing the above, we see that camels, men, dogs, and kanga- roo rats, all of them mammals, conform to expectations. The small ones avoid extreme conditions, and the large ones resist them by sweating. In addition, special adaptations, by modification of the general mammalian physiological plan, are apparent in typical desert inhabitants. ARTHROPODS We may now examine the situation in desert arthropods. Here we have to do with a rather different physiological pattern. All these animals are so small that active regulation of body tempera- ture by evaporation of water is impossible, at any rate for more than very short periods, and water conservation is all important. They are all poikilotherms, and their temperatures fluctuate with that of the environment, so that toleration of a wide range of body tempera- 420 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 ture is the most efficient adaptation that they can possess. Neverthe- less the ability to prevent undue rise in temperature for a limited period would be a distinct advantage in certain critical situations, and there is evidence that this does occur. There are plenty of desert-living arthropods, including insects, spiders, and their allies, and even a few crustaceans. Rather less is known about the physiology of desert arthropods than desert mam- mals. What information exists, suggests that there are no striking physiological adaptations (Cloudsley-Thompson, unpublished), but this may be a mistaken impression because nobody has looked very carefully. Desert beetles have a rather less permeable integument than those from temperature climates, and the same is true of wood lice. On the whole, however, arthropods exist by avoiding extreme conditions. Because of their small size and mobility they are able to do so very well. This focuses attention on an aspect of the problem which we have not so far considered in detail: the microclimates available for escape. There is by now a considerable amount of information on this sub- ject, and I should like to consider two examples. Many years ago Williams investigated the variation in climate in a small area of the Egyptian desert. His conclusions, recently summarized (Williams, 1954), show how an animal, by moving through a very short dis- tance, can avoid extremes of temperature and dryness. When the ground surface temperature was 56° C., 10 cm. below the surface it was only 384° C., and by moving up and down through a distance of 30 cm. in the soil, an animal could live in a constant temperature throughout the daily cycle. A second example provides a rather interesting comment on Wil- liams’s work. It concerns some observations (Edney, 1958) on a desert woodlouse, Hemilepistus reaumurt. It is strange enough to find land crustaceans at all in desert conditions, and this species seems, so far as we know, to differ but slightly in physiological mat- ters from its temperate relatives. It is larger than most woodlice, it runs with its body held well above the ground by longish legs, thereby avoiding contact with the hot surface, and its cuticle is less permeable to water than that of other woodlice. But it still breathes by what are essentially gills, and survives by digging small vertical holes about 30 cm. deep in which it spends the hot part of the day. Temperatures and humidities measured in the habitat of these ani- mals show the efficacy of the retreat holes (fig. 2). These measure- ments also show that Hemélepistus transpires rapidly enough to reduce its body temperature significantly for short periods—a fact of considerable practical importance, for the animals emerge from their holes if the sun is covered by a cloud. As soon as the cloud ANIMAL SURVIVAL IN HOT DESERTS—EDNEY 421 30°C.e <20% R.H. Dead 34°63 Si7eG: Wy wy R.H. Ficure 2.—A set of observations in the habitat of Hemilepistus reaumuri (Isopoda), in the Algerian desert. passes, the surface of the soil and the air immediately above it undergo a very rapid rise in temperature (as much as 15° C. in 10 seconds). In such crises, ability to transpire rapidly while seeking shelter is undoubtedly an advantage to the animal. It seems, then, that the physiology of arthropods in deserts, so far as it is known, conforms to expectation. They are too small to maintain a constant temperature by transpiration for long, and consequently they exist by avoiding true desert conditions. Ability to transpire rapidly is certainly of some immediate ad- vantage both for temperature depression and for respiration. But in the long run, it is a great disadvantage to small animals, for it restricts them to cryptozoic niches—moist, cool crevices which form only a small part of the terrestrial habitat. The most landworthy arthropods, not only in deserts but on land in general, have imper- meable cuticles. It may be permissible to speculate as to why woodlice, after living on land for at least 60 million years, have shown so little progress. Since some of the animals are still littoral, and their closest relatives are marine, there is strong evidence that the group migrated to land across the littoral zone. This is perhaps a more difficult route than that through estuaries and swamps because the problems of land locomotion, air breathing, and great temperature fluctuations are 422 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 presented all at once, rather than one at a time as they are along the other route. Now the littoral habitat is particularly subject to violent change, and a high transpiration rate would be of value both in permitting oxygen uptake in dry air through the integument, and in enabling the animals to reach shelter if they were caught in the open by intense solar radiation. This may be an instance of a group of animals having been caught in an evolutionary cul-de-sac, because the immediate survival value of a highly permeable cuticle prevented the development of those characters essential to land life. At least it can be said with confidence that until the twin problems of an efficient internal respiratory system and a greater temperature tol- erance have been solved, the integument cannot be made imperme- able and the animals will be prevented from full exploitation of the terrestrial habitat. CONCLUSIONS Let us now try to see desert animals as part of the general picture of evolution. It is sometimes said, or implied, that the terrestrial habitat is advantageous in the sense of encouraging biological prog- ress. Are we then to think of desert animals, living as they do in extreme terrestrial conditions, as being the most progressive of animals? Such statements are, of course, meaningful only if the term “prog- ress” has been defined. The measurement of progress involves a criterion of perfection. It is legitimate and to some extent helpful to set up such a criterion, provided we realize that the choice is arbitrary. Thus we may measure progress, with reasonable objectiv- ity, in terms of the range of habitats in which an animal can exist, or, and I think preferably, as Herrick (1946) and following him Simpson (1950) would have it, in terms of the range and variety of adjustments of the organism to its environment—that is, the degree of awareness of the environment and of ability to act accordingly. If we may accept this measure of progress for the sake of the present discussion, the advantages of land life are plain. There is a greater variety of habitats on land. Temperature and humidity change more rapidly over a greater range and this calls for more complex behavior patterns to avoid extremes, or for internal homeo- static mechanisms to mitigate their effects. Again, the richer oxygen supply and rarer medium permit more rapid and sustained locomo- tion, which in turn calls for more acute sense organs—particularly for perception at a distance—and more complex behavior patterns to cope with the rapid tempo of life. I suspect that the development of homeothermy, which is itself a prerequisite for the development of intelligence, could never have occurred in aquatic animals because ANIMAL SURVIVAL IN HOT DESERTS—EDNEY 423 of the high thermal capacity of water, the scarcity of oxygen, and the narrow range and slow rate of temperature changes. These then are the possibilities offered by life on land: to be eligi- ble for progress along these lines an animal must be terrestrial. But this is not to say that it must live in a desert, and we must look elsewhere for the reasons why some animals do so. There is room, biologically speaking, for amoebae and for men; there is room for tapeworms, and shrimps, and land crabs. There is doubtless room for hosts of animals which have never been evolved. But life continues to exist at all levels of organization and in all biological niches once occupied while there is a possibility of existing there. There is no compulsion on all organisms to evolve into higher organisms. Progress is not inevitable. In other words, organic life flows into possible biological niches in all directions; it does not move steadily toward one goal. The desert is one of these niches. Probably it is one of the most difficult of land habitats, but it would be a mistake to draw the con- clusion that animals which live there are necessarily more advanced than others, in the sense of being able to live in a wider range of environments. Camels are clearly not more advanced animals than men on our agreed scale of progress. It is broadly true that life has evolved from “easier” to “harder” environments, and indeed a desert is one of the hardest. The animals which live there are well adapted, and their adaptations are interesting to explore. But many of them, particularly the arthropods, cannot live in moist cool surroundings. If versatility is a measure of progress, then desert animals have sold their inheritance for the immediate advantages of specialization. As regards adaptation to terrestrial conditions as a whole, mammals and arthropods are the two most successful groups, but each group has its own secret of success. The mammalian plan is a good one: it allows a great variety of habitats to be occupied by a small number of relatively generalized species. Mammals can solve water and tem- perature problems in a generally applicable way, because they are large and can develop homeothermy. Arthropods, on the other hand, cannot solve all their water and temperature problems in a general way. They are too small, and they must solve some of their problems by specializing. Thus one species is specialized to tolerate a high range of body temperature, another a low range; one species can withstand dry air, another only moist air. Adaptability in arthro- pods is a property of the group as a whole rather than of individual species. And now before I conclude, I must try to answer the inevitable question: what is the use of all this work on the physiology of little- 424 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 known animals living in little-known places? I do not believe this question to be irrelevant, for I am not one of those who maintain the sanctity of ivory towers, either scientific or otherwise. On the other hand, let us not make the error of thinking that all knowledge which is not immediately applicable is valueless. The value of fun- damental biological inquiry les in the greater insight it gives us into the way organisms work; and better understanding of any process permits more effective control. If we wish to manipulate the balance of nature, we must first of all understand its principles. In partic- ular, the value of work on survival in hot dry climates lies in its ulti- mate application to the utilization of those vast areas of the earth’s surface which are at present uninhabitable by mankind. For those who require applicability as an end to their endeavors, that must be the answer. REFERENCES ADOLPH, Ki. F., and Di11, D. B. 1938. Observations on water metabolism in the desert. Amer. Journ. Physiol., vol. 128, pp. 369-378. BEAMENT, J. W. L. 1959. The waterproofing mechanism of arthropods. I. The effect of temper- ature on cuticle permeability in terrestrial insects and ticks. Journ. Exp. Biol., vol. 36, pp. 391-422. DELAUNAY, H. 1931. L’excrétion azotée des invertébrés. Biol. Rev., vol. 31, pp. 265-301. Di11, D. B.; Bock, A. V.; and Epwarps, H. T. 1933. Mechanisms for dissipating heat in man and dog. Amer. Journ. Physiol., vol. 104, pp. 36-43. Dpney, E. B. 1957. The water relations of terrestrial arthropods. Cambridge Monographs of Experimental Biology. 1958. The micro-climate in which woodlice live. Proce. 10th Internat. Congr. Entomol. Montreal, 1956, vol. 2, pp. 709-712. EDNEY, FE. B., and SPENCER, J. 1955. Cutaneous respiration in woodlice. Journ. Exp. Biol., vol. 32, pp. 256-269. HERRICK, C. J. 1946. Progressive evolution. Science, vol. 104, p. 469. HoupeGater, M. W., and SEAL, M. 1956. The epicuticular wax layers of the pupa of Tenebrio molitor L. Journ. Exp. Biol., vol. 33, pp. 82-106. Merap-Brices, A. R. 1956. The effect of temperature on the permeability to water of arthropod cuticles. Journ. Exp. Biol., vol. 33, pp. 737-749. MELLANBY, K. 1932. The effect of atmospheric humidity on the metabolism of the fasting mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L., Coleoptera). Proc. Roy. Soc., B, vol. 111, pp. 376-390. ANIMAL SURVIVAL IN HOT DESERTS—EDNEY 425 NEEDHAM, J. 1929. Protein metabolism and organic evolution. Science Progress, vol. 23, pp. 633-646. 1935. Problems of nitrogen catabolism in invertebrates. II. Correlation between uricotelic metabolism and habitat in the phyllum Mollusca. Biochem. Journ., vol. 29, pp. 288-251. ScCHMIDT-NIELSEN, K. and B. 1954. Heat regulation in small and large desert mammals. Jn Biology of Deserts, ed. Cloudsley-Thompson, Institute of Biology, London. SIMPSON, G. G. 1950. The meaning of evolution. Oxford. WIGGLESWORTH, V. B. 1945. Transpiration through the cuticle of insects. Journ. Exp. Biol., vol. 21, pp. 97-114. WILLIAMS, C. B. 1954. Some bioclimatic observations in the Egyptian desert. Jn Biology of Deserts, ed. Cloudsley-Thompson, Institute of Biology, London. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. ‘tt ions ® Yio ea noe a ; i “ un pe ” Pi Se cid dane: suminart ee cooper bron et ant ee nn 4 wera ve Pe epee oe uy = | an ibe 1 Ge if dus + Aiceant at eas igty ’ i. 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Goin Professor of Biological Sciences, University of Florida, and Research Associate, Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh ANY TEACHER of comparative vertebrate anatomy who is worth his salt does, I am sure, emphasize the anatomical adaptations necessary for the invasion of land by the vertebrates. This aspect of evolution has been thoroughly explored, and within the limits of the paleon- tological record and the philosophical insight of man has been rather adequately explained. Another facet of the development of life on land is that of the environmental conditions under which these adaptations arose. These, too, have been investigated, and there has been in recent years a flurry of papers (Orton, 1954; Ewer, 1955; Gunter, 1956; Inger, 1957; Romer, 1958) discussing the ecological aspects of adaptation to life on land, in one of which the present writer had a hand (Goin and Goin, 1956). There remains another adaptational aspect, however, which I think has been neglected, and that is the development of those reproductive devices necessary to life on land. True, most elementary texts state that the final break with the water was made possible through the development of the shelled reptilian egg in which the embryo is enclosed in a fluid-filled sac by a new membrane, the amnion. They usually do not pursue the subject further unless it be simply to imply that the shelled egg made neces- sary internal fertilization. In fact, it is difficult even to find a litera- ture reference to the idea that it must have been the other way around—that is, that internal fertilization made possible the develop- ment of the shelled egg. It is this subject of the adaptive aspects of life history among the first terrestrial vertebrates that I want to pursue here. Surely we must not assume that only a single evolutionary attempt was made to 1Read at the 38th annual banquet of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Her- petologists. In preparing this paper, the author has greatly profited from discussions with others. He would like to mention especially Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, Dr. Ernest Lachner, Dr. Robert Inger, Dr. M. Graham Netting, Dr. Kenneth W. Cooper, and most particularly his wife, Olive Bown Goin. 427 428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 modify a life history from that of an aquatic organism to that of a terrestrial organism. In fact, variability in reproductive pattern seems to be characteristic of the lower vertebrates. Diversity of life history is certainly well exemplified in the fishes, for example. Thus, in the grunions (Atherinidae) the eggs are deposited in sand on the beaches. The eggs of the Brazilian Copeina arnoldi are laid in jelly- like masses just above the waterline and are splashed by the male every 15 or 20 minutes until they hatch after about 3 days. Male climbing perch (Anabantidae) make floating bubble nests in which the females deposit the eggs. Males of sea catfishes (Ariidae) and mojarras (Cichlidae) carry the eggs in their mouths until they hatch, and in the well-known pipefishes (Syngnathidae) the female deposits her eggs in a brood pouch on the abdomen of the male. Here they are fertilized, the eggs hatch, and the young undergo their develop- ment. Internal fertilization is practiced by the sharks and top min- nows (Poeciliidae), and in these groups the young are usually “born alive.” In each of these, however, the modification has resulted solely in the protection of the eggs from the exigencies of development in open water, since the adult itself never becomes terrestrial. This is not true of the amphibians. Comparative anatomy teaches us that adults of many of the modern forms have developed terrestrial characteristics while their reproductive habits still link them to the water. It is impossible for us to examine directly the breeding habits of those early amphibians that moved their way out on land and gave rise to the truly terrestrial vertebrates. However, even today, 275 million years later, the amphibians are still trying to alter the piscine life-history pattern of depositing large numbers of small-yolked eggs in open ponds, on the chance that some of the offspring will live through to maturity. A study of these attempts may give us some clues as to how the change to terrestrialism was made. An examina- tion of life histories shows plainly that many amphibians today do not at all follow what is known as the “typical” life history. Because the study of the amphibians developed largely in the North Temperate Zone, and because the frogs of this zone usually spawn in open water, with the small-yolked eggs hatching out into tadpoles which swim around until they are ready to transform into froglets, we often get the feeling that this is the amphibian life history. We are apt to overlook the fact that most amphibians live in parts of the world where the study of amphibians and reptiles has been least pursued and that the “typical condition” as given in an elementary zoology text may really, in a sense, be atypical. It may not even have been the characteristic pattern of the Carboniferous amphibians. Noble (1931) pointed out that the most primitive amphibians living today, AMPHIBIANS—GOIN 429 the tropical, wormlike caecilians, lay large-yolked eggs on land, and suggested that this may also have been true of the earliest amphibians. More recently, Romer (1957), in discussing the adaptive advantages of the terrestrial egg, hypothesized that the terrestrial egg preceded the terrestrial adult. Several other aspects of amphibian life history have recently been explored by various workers. Lutz (1947) summarized the trend toward direct development in frogs, and a year later (Lutz, 1948) again discussed developmental variation, this time with particular emphasis on the amount of yolk in the egg. Orton (1949, 1951) has particularly interested herself in the modifications in the larval stages as correlated with direct development in frogs. More recently Jameson (1955) produced an excellent summary of modifications in mating behavior of the anurans. Let me now summarize briefly the life-history modifications shown by the various living families of amphibians. Caecilidae —Among the caecilians, internal fertilization is the rule. In the male, the cloaca (the common chamber into which the digestive and reproductive tracts empty) can be everted and serves as a copu- latory structure when the cloacas of the two sexes are brought to- gether. We find both aquatic and terrestrial caecilians and their life histories reflect these differences. In /chthyophis, a native of Ceylon, breeding takes place in spring. A burrow is prepared by the female in moist ground close to running water. She coils her body about the 20 or more relatively large-yolked eggs and guards them zealously during development, protecting them from predatory snakes and lizards. The eggs swell gradually until they are about double their original size. When ready to hatch, the embryo weighs approxi- mately four times as much as did the original egg. External gills are present at first, but these are lost soon after hatching. The larvae, which are aquatic, metamorphose into burrowing, limbless adults that would drown if kept under water. The genus 2Ainatrema of northern South America likewise has eggs that hatch out into aquatic larvae with external gills. On the other hand, Gymnophis and Geotrypetes retain the eggs in the oviducts and give birth to young which are replicas of the adults. The wall of the oviduct is provided with compound oil glands and the larvae subsist by literally eating the tissue of the wall with its in- cluded oil droplets. Hynobtidae——The hynobiids, primitive salamanders of the Old World, practice external fertilization, and the females deposit the eggs inegg cases. Batrachuperus karlschmidti, a common salamander of the small mountain streams of western China, attaches its egg cases in the stream bed proper, under or on the sides of large stones 430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 in flowing water. These cases are mostly found in small brooks, especially near their source, where spring water seeps out of the ground or from under stones. The end of the egg case that is attached to the stone is flat and sticky and the body of the case is a cylindrical tube, larger in the middle and smaller toward the free end where it is smooth and transparent. The free end is covered with a smooth, cup- like cap which is even more delicate than the rest of the case. This cap is forced off by the movement of the fully developed embryos, and the young free themselves through the hole. The individual egg cases contain 7 to 12 eggs or developing embryos, and since as many as 45 eges in the same stage of development have been taken from a single mature female, it follows that each female deposits 5 or 6 separate egg cases. The larvae are fairly typical salamander stream larvae. Cryptobranchidae.—The salamanders of this family, like those in the family Hynobiidae, practice external fertilization. In Crypto- branchus, the hellbender of the eastern United States, mating takes place in the late summer. ‘The male excavates a nest on the stream bottom beneath some large sheltering object, usually a flat rock, and will accept females that have not deposited their eggs. The eggs are laid in long rosarylike strings, one from each oviduct. These strings settle in a tangled mass on the bottom of the nest. As many as 450 eggs may be deposited by a single female, and several females may lay in a single nest. Fertilization is accomplished by the male discharging into the water a whitish, cloudy mass, consisting of semi- nal fluid and secretions of the cloacal glands, as the eggs are deposited by the female. After the eggs are deposited and fertilized, the male often lies among them with his head guarding the opening of the nest. It takes about 10 to 12 weeks for the eggs to hatch; the larvae trans- form at approximately 18 months. Ambystomatidae—tIn the family of the mole salamanders, two modifications not present in the previously mentioned families of salamanders show up: one is internal fertilization and the other is deposition of eggs on land. All the Ambystomatidae practice internal fertilization by means of spermatophores. These spermatophores are little packets of sperm, enclosed in a mushroom-shaped, gelatinous mass, which are deposited by the male and picked up by the cloacal lips of the female. Most of the ambystomatids, such as Ambystoma tigrinum, A. maculatum, and A. jeffersonianium, lay their eggs in water. In the last-named species, for example, the adults migrate to the breeding ponds in the early spring. The females usually outnum- ber the males and often must bid for attention during the mating season. After a characteristic courtship, the female picks up the spermatophore and deposits small eggs in cylindrical masses which AMPHIBIANS—GOIN 431 contain on the average about 16 eggs. ‘These eggs are, of course, fertilized as they pass down the oviduct. Since the female may de- posit over 200 eggs, it often takes a number of masses to complete a deposition. Typically, the incubation period ranges from 380 to 45 days, and transformation, or metamorphosis, follows 2 to 4 months after hatching. A. opacum departs from this pattern to lay its eggs in the fall on land under old logs or other sheltering objects. The young, which hatch out on the advent of winter rains and make their way into the water, exhibit all the larval characteristics typical of other species of the genus. Salamandridae.—The typical salamanders have developed a diver- sity of life-history patterns. Fertilization is internal by means of spermatophores. In the common American newt, Diemictylus v. viri- descens, mating takes place in the spring. The eggs, numbering 200 to 375, are laid singly and usually are fastened to some aquatic object, such as a leaf or the stem of a small plant in quiet waters. Rarely they may be attached to the surface of a stone. The eggs hatch in about 20 to 35 days and the larval period usually lasts until fall. On the other hand, some species of the Old World genus Sala- mandra exhibit modified life histories. Salamandra atra, for ex- ample, retains the eggs in the oviduct for the developmental period, and the young are born as fully metamorphosed individuals. In S. salamandra the developing individuals are retained in the oviduct for a time, but they may be born as late larvae, rather than as com- pletely metamorphosed individuals. If the larvae of these two species are dissected from the oviduct, they are found to have the long filamentous gills and rudimentary balancers that are characteristic of pond larvae. This shows that in Salamandra the retention of the developing young in the oviducts is a modification of the aquatic form of life history. Amphiumidae.—While details of the congo eel’s life history remain to be discovered, the broad picture is evident. Fertilization is ap- parently internal and the eggs are laid in long, rosarylike strings in shallow depressions on land beneath old logs or boards. These strings contain, In some cases, at least 150 eggs. The normally aquatic fe- male remains with the eggs and guards them during their develop- mental period. Plethodontidae—Members of this specialized family of salaman- ders also show some specialized life histories. Hence, not one but several accounts are needed to typify the breeding habits of this family. In all the species, fertilization is internal by means of spermatophores, but from this point on, there are modifications tend- 536608—60——29 432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 ing toward terrestrial adaptation. In the red salamanders, Pseudo- triton, the eggs are deposited in small groups hanging from tiny root- lets and other submerged structures in cool, muddy springs. The female stays with the eggs, but apparently when they have hatched the larvae range for themselves. The dusky salamander, Desmog- nathus fuscus, on the other hand, lays its eggs not in the water but on land. They are deposited in small, grapelike clusters in shallow excavations in the soft earth, among bits of sphagnum, or under- neath stones or logs. These excavations generally are within a few feet of the water. Upon hatching the young salamanders do not go at once to the water, but remain for a week or two on land and show definite terrestrial adaptations. The posterior limbs are longer in proportion to the trunk region than at any time during later develop- ment. Likewise the tail lacks a fin. In short, this young salamander is not merely a little larva which has not yet had a chance to reach the water but is basically a terrestrial salamander, able to move about in the damp crannies and crevices leading from the nest to the nearest pool or stream. After about 2 weeks these young terrestrial larvae take up an aquatic existence until such time as metamorphosis occurs, which it usually does when they are about 7 to 9 months of age. Plethodon cinereus, the red-backed salamander of the eastern United States, exemplifies the typical terrestrial plethodontid life history. The female lays 3 to 12 large unpigmented eggs in crannies and holes in rotten logs. Each egg adheres firmly to those previously laid, so that a little mass of eggs seemingly enclosed in a single envelope is formed. The egg cluster is usually attached to the roof of the cavity. The embryos develop rapidly and soon exhibit well-developed external gills. These, however, are lost on hatching. The young emerge in the same form as adults and never take up an aquatic larval exist- ence. Finally, Zydromantes and Oedipus retain the eggs in the ovi- ducts and give birth to fully transformed young. Proteidae—This family, which includes the well-known mud puppy, Vecturus, is somewhat isolated structurally from the other salamanders and its members never completely metamorphose. Fer- tilization is internal. The female of Nectwrus maculosus lays eggs singly in still water and attaches them to the undersurface of rocks, boards, or other objects, usually in water 3 to 5 feet deep and from 50 to 100 feet from shore in shallow lakes, although they have been recorded from streams. There are from 18 to 180 eggs in each clutch. They hatch after 4 or 5 weeks. In this genus there is, of course, no metamorphosis, since these salamanders are aquatic and retain their gills throughout life. The European olm Proteus, under some con- ditions, does not lay its eggs but rather retains them in the oviduct where the young undergo development, finally to be born as sala- manders, which are but miniature replicas of the adult. In contrast AMPHIBIANS—GOIN 433 to the caecilians, there are no special modifications known of either the larvae or the oviduct to permit this change in life history. Sirenidae.—The aquatic sirens have been reported time and time again to exhibit external fertilization, but these reports have been based on the fact that no one has yet demonstrated either the produc- tion of spermatophores by the male or the presence of a receptacle for storing the sperm in the cloaca of the female. Nonetheless, I am not yet convinced that the Sirenidae practice external fertilization. In Pseudobranchus, the dwarf siren, the eggs are deposited singly on the roots of water hyacinths and are so widely scattered that often an en- tire afternoon’s collecting will produce less than a dozen eggs. They may be spaced as much as 5 or 10 feet apart. Dissection of mature fe- males readily demonstrates that they may have well over 100 eggs ready for deposition at one time. It seems inconceivable that such a large number of widely scattered eggs could be fertilized externally. The eggs hatch several weeks after deposition, but of course the young larvae never metamorphose because these, like Vecturus, are aquatic forms that retain the gills. Since in both the Hynobiidae and the Cryptobranchidae, the two families of salamanders that are known to have external fertilization, the eggs are laid in clusters, either in little capsules or packages, or in rosarylike strings, it would seem that the habit of spacing the eggs at wide intervals would be unique among salamanders with external fertilization if the Sirenidae are, in fact, really salamanders—but that is another story. Leiopelmidae.—These primitive frogs have internal fertilization with the “tail” (cloacal appendage) of the male acting as a copulatory structure. In the tailed frog, Ascaphus, the voiceless male swims about on the bottom of a flowing stream until he finds a female. He grabs her and secures a firm grip, clasping her just in front of her hind legs and humping his body so as to bring his extended cloacal appendage into position to thrust into her cloaca. The sperm is ap- parently transported to the female cloaca by means of this appendage. The eggs are deposited in coils of rosarylike strings which adhere to rocks at the bottom of the stream. In the cold water in which these eggs are deposited, embryonic development is slow, and transforma- tion does not occur until the following summer. The only close rela- tive of Ascaphus is Leiopelma of New Zealand. This frog has been reported to lay eggs on land which go through direct development, but the details of mating and method of egg deposition are unknown. Pelobatidae.—As in other families, there is a good deal of variation of life histories in the burrowing toads. The reproductive pattern of the spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus h. holbrooki, is somewhat typical of the New World forms in that there is a speeding up of the develop- mental processes in correlation with the habit of breeding in tem- porary waters. In torrential rains and hurricanes any time of the 434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 year from early spring to late fall, males emerge from their burrows and move to temporary rain-filled pools where they call vigorously. Calling takes place both by day and by night. When the females reach the ponds, they are clasped by the males and egg deposition occurs. The toads cling to a stiff spear of grass or other piece of vegetation beneath the surface of the water and slowly crawl up the stem, in a few minutes depositing a string of about 200 eggs. The tiny eggs hatch in a fairly short period of time, depending in part on water temperature and other external factors which have yet to be determined. Under certain conditions they may hatch within a day and ahalf. The little tadpoles remain in the pool for a varied period of time, depending again on conditions within the drying-up pool. That local environmental conditions have their effect can be easily demonstrated. My wife and I have taken tadpoles from a drying pool in our backyard and put them on the back porch in a jar of water from the pool, leaving other tadpoles in the puddle. Those tads left in the puddle emerged just prior to the drying up of the pond, while those in the jar of water on the back porch continued to exist for several weeks afterward as untransformed tadpoles. On the other hand, in the Old World pelobatid Sooglossus seychel- lensis the eggs are laid on land and the tadpoles are carried about adhering to the male’s back where they undergo their development. The eggs are fairly large and the larvae hatch with hind-leg rudiments present, but have neither external nor internal gills at any stage of development. Pipidae.—Three types of life history are exemplified by the very aquatic frogs of the family Pipidae. In the Old World forms, such as the African clawed frog, Xenopus, the eggs are deposited in the water and are attached to weeds. On the other hand, in the five American species, including the Surmam toad, Pipa pipa, eggs are placed in pouches on the backs of the females. These pouches are temporary pits formed in the soft skin of the dorsum. Development is direct in two species and probably also in a third, but in the other two the eggs hatch into tadpoles that resemble those of the Old World species. Discoglossidae-—The mating behavior of the obstetrical toad, Alytes obstetricans, has been worked out in rather careful detail. The males call from small holes in the ground. Mating occurs on the ground nearby and is apt to last most of the night. The male clasps the female tightly around the head above the forelimbs and gently massages her cloacal region with his toes. Just before the eggs are laid, the male moves his hind legs forward so that his heels are to- gether anterior to and above the cloaca of the female. As the eggs are emitted the male catches the mass in his feet and, by stretching his legs backward, delivers from 20 to 60 eggs which the female expels AMPHIBIANS—GOIN 435 with a sudden noise. The male then moves his legs around, entwining the eggs about his legs. He carries them for several weeks, until the tadpoles are about ready to hatch, at which time he makes a brief visit to a pool where no other tadpoles are present. Here he deposits the eggs; the little tadpoles hatch out and finish their development as tads in the pool. Bombina maxima, the yellow-bellied toad, breeds in the water. The male clasps the female just above the front of the hind limbs and the eggs are laid in small masses which, instead of being wrapped around the legs of the male, sink to the bottom or come to rest suspended on submerged vegetation. Here they lie until the eggs hatch. Rhinophrynidae—The Mexican burrowing toad, Rhinophrynus, exhibits an aquatic courtship, the males grasping the females in front of the hind legs. The eggs are then deposited in the water where they hatch out into aquatic larvae which later undergo metamorphosis. Leptodactylidae——The two abundant genera of New World lepto- dactylids, Leptodactylus, the nest-building frogs, and Lleutherodac- tylus, the robber frogs, have rather uniform life histories among themselves. The species of Leptodactylus build frothy nests in or near bodies of water. The eggs are deposited and hatch within these nests. The larvae have very slim bodies and make their way through the nest to the adjacent water. While there is some variation in larval form among the different species, in general throughout the genus there is agreement of nest form and larval habits. A few leptodac- tylids have become more terrestrial. Z. nanus scoops out a small basin in the earth at a site some distance from the water. The froth and eggs are deposited in this basin which is then roofed over with mud. A tiny aperture is left at the top through which the young escape after metamorphosis. Fleutherodactylus lays its eggs on land. Here, about sunrise in the morning, generally under stones or logs or similar cover, the female deposits her eggs while clasped by the male who fertilizes them as they are deposited. These eggs go through direct development and at hatching the little froglet is a miniature replica of the adult. Life histories of Paludicola and Hupemphix are similar in pattern to that characteristic of Leptodactylus. Zachaenus, like L. nanus, lays its eggs in an earth basin, but the basin is not roofed over. The young, however, complete metamorphosis in the basin as do the young of L. nanus. In the Australian Helezoporus eyrei, the eggs are laid in a frothy mass of jelly underground in the spring of the year. Development proceeds within the egg until the external gills have been lost and the gill covering developed. Hatching seems to depend on the nest being flooded. 436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 The Australian Limnodynastes tasmaniensis lays small eggs which are enclosed in a gelatinous frothy mass floating on any available water supply. These eggs hatch in about 48 hours and the newly emerged larvae make their way from the frothy mass into the water where they immediately attach themselves to water plants, debris, or other submerged objects. Centrolenidae——Not too much is known concerning the breeding habits of this distinctive little family of tree frogs. The eggs are deposited in disklike masses on the undersides of green leaves. These masses are invariably above running water, into which the tadpoles fall on hatching. It has been reported for Cochranella fleischmanni, of Barro Colorado Island, Panama Canal Zone, that the easiest way to locate the frogs is to search out the egg masses. At night a male will nearly always be in attendance. Multiple matings by a single male have been reported for this species. Bufonidae.—The true toads, like so many other anuran families, show a diversity of life histories. In the genus Bufo the males go to the ponds in spring, in the Northern Hemisphere at least, and give their calls. When the female approaches the male, the latter embraces her behind the front legs and the pair float at the surface, the male leaving his hind legs hanging free. As the female deposits the eggs, the male brings his knees to rest in her groin with heels almost touching. The female pushes along the bottom and deposits strings of small-yolked eggs, which may number in the thousands. They hatch in 2 to 4 days into little, short, polliwog-type tadpoles. These tadpoles transform into tiny toads a month or two later. In the African genus Vectophrynoides, which contains but three species, the eggs are not laid but are retained in the body of the female where they hatch; the young go through their larval develop- ment in the oviducts of the mother. The number of young is greatly reduced in comparison to the number produced by the toads that lay their eggs in water, but even so, more than 100 may be taken from a single female of Vectophrynoides vivipara. Despite the fact that these larvae remain in the oviduct rather than having a free-living tadpole stage, few of the important characters of tadpoles have actu- ally been lost. Transformation takes places within the oviduct and fully developed young are born. No copulatory organs have been described for this genus of frogs, and how the spermatazoa are transmitted from the male to the female is not known. Rhinodermatidae—The small Andean Darwin’s frog, Rhinoderma darwini, has one of the most unusual of all life histories known among the frogs. Several males will watch a clutch of 20 to 30 eggs, deposited on land by a single female, for 10 to 20 days, until they are nearly ready to hatch and the embryos can be seen moving inside them. Over a period of several days, each male then picks up AMPHIBIANS—GOIN 437 a number of eggs, one at a time, with his tongue and slides them down into his vocal pouch. Here the young pass the larval stage. They do not emerge until metamorphosis is completed. Although it lacks a free-living larval period, the developing frog is for a time completely tadpolelike. The tiny Sminthillus limbatus of Cuba lays one large-yolked egg on Jand which hatches into a fully formed frog. Dendrobatidae.—The little poison frogs are apparently rather uni- form in the fact that the male carries the tadpoles on his back until he deposits them in a body of quiet, casual water. In Dendrobates au- ratus, the male has no definite calling site but makes a low buzzing sound as he moves about over the ground on a morning after a rain. Usually a male will be followed by several females, some of which will actually jump on him. He is apparently aware of his admirers because if pursuit lags, he slows down and becomes more vociferous. Finally he dives beneath the wet leaf mold and is followed by a fe- male. The details of mating are not known and in fact it is not even sure that it does take place under these situations. It is known, how- ever, that the female lays on land from one to six rather large-yolked eggs which are surrounded by an irregular, sticky, gelatinous material with no definite external film. These eggs hatch in about 2 weeks. The male either guards or visits the clutch, and the newly hatched tad- poles wriggle onto his back. Some time later he moves to the water and the tadpoles slide off. Tadpole-carrying males have been noted in trees quite some distance from water, although it may be that they were carrying tadpoles up to tree holes which contained water. Tad- poles collected in water have been known to live for at least 42 days before transformation. Similar habits are shown by the related genera, Phyllobates and Prostherapis, although apparently the num- ber of tadpoles carried by an individual male is greater. In Phyl- lobates, males have been found carrying as many as 15 tadpoles, and tadpole-carrying males of this genus have been seen as far as a quarter of a mile from water. A specimen of Prostherapis fuliginosus has been taken with 25 tadpoles on the back. Atelopodidae.—As far as I know, the brightly colored little toads of this family exhibit aquatic breeding habits with indirect develop- ment—that is, the eggs are laid in water and pass through a tadpole stage before transformation. Hylidae—tThe tree frogs have very diverse life histories. One group comprises a few genera of South American frogs placed to- gether in the subfamily Hemiphractinae. These include Crypto- batrachus, Hemiphractus, Gastrotheca, and Amphignathodon. While typically hylid in appearance, these frogs have the habit of carrying eggs in a mass on the back of the female. In some, this mass is im- bedded in or covered by a fold of skin which forms a veritable sac as 438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 in the marsupial frog Gastrotheca marsupiata. In others, such as Cryptobatrachus evansi, the female carries the eggs exposed on the back where they go through their development. In other hylids as- signed to the subfamily Hylinae, the life history is less modified, but even here there are specializations. In the Central and South Ameri- can genus Phyllomedusa, for example, the male clasps the female while she moves about through the trees and selects a leaf over water on which to deposit her eggs. While spawning, the pair move slowly forward from the tip of the leaf toward the stalk, folding the leaf into a nest and filling it with eggs and foam. The two ends of the leaf are left open. In this foamy mass the eggs develop into tadpoles which then fall through the hole in the end of the leaf into the water below. In Hyla decipiens likewise the eggs are laid in a gelatinous mass on a leaf overhanging sluggish water. Upon hatching, the larvae break free and fall into the water. Hyla rosenbergi and Hyla faber build basins of mud on or near the edge of pools. In these basins they deposit their eggs. The tadpoles have enormous gills with which they adhere to the surface film of these basins. With the rise of water following the rains, the tadpoles make their way into the body of the pool or stream. In Hyla goeldi the eggs are carried on the back of the female until ready to hatch, at which time the mother goes and sits in the water while hatching progresses, In Jamaica, all the species of Hyla have specialized breeding habits. They deposit their eggs in the little water held at the base of the leaves of “wild pines” or bromeliads. Here the little tadpoles hatch out and start through their development. Food is quite scarce in this environ- ment and the tadpoles have become specialized for feeding upon the eggs laid either by the mother or some other female. In some forms, at least, they may eat the eggs of other species, but certainly in Hyla brunnea it can be demonstrated that they eat the eggs of their own species, for in certain parts of the Blue Mountains where I have ob- served this behavior, brunnea is the only Hyla present. Not only do the tadpoles eat the eggs of their own species, but, in all probability, they eat the tadpoles of the same clutch. As one watches a develop- ing nest, in the early stages there are many tadpoles present, but as time goes on the tadpoles become fewer and fewer, so that by the time transformation is about to take place perhaps less than half a dozen living tadpoles are left to transform. The reduction in teeth and the extremely long tails of these tadpoles are presumably modifications for existence in this environment. Similar egg-eating tadpoles have been described for a continental genus of hylid, Anotheca, of Mexico and Central America. Many of the hylas do, however, have the habit of breeding in open water with the unprotected eggs transforming through the tadpole AMPHIBIANS—GOIN 439 stage into little frogs. In the gray treefrog, Hyla versicolor, for ex- ample, the adults go to the ponds from April to early summer to breed. The eggs are laid, scattered in small masses or packets of not more than 20 to 40 eggs each, on the surface of quiet pools. These packets are loosely attached to the vegetation. The egg itself is but slightly larger than a millimeter in diameter while the outer envelopes may be more than 4 mm. in diameter. The eggs hatch in 4 to 5 days and the tadpoles emerge to swim around and feed in the pond for about a month and a half to 2 months until they transform, usually in the middle or late summer, into small frogs that may be from 15 to 20 mm. in snout-to-vent length. Ranidae.—The typical life-history pattern of the so-called “true frogs” of the genus ana is too well known to deserve more than pass- ing mention. In Rana pipiens, the leopard frog, the eggs are laid in the spring months. They are deposited in large masses attached to submerged plants, twigs, or sticks, or they may even rest on the bot- tom, unattached, in open ponds and marshes. After hatching, the tadpole exists as a sunfish-type tadpole with a very high tail fin for 2 or 3 months. The tadpole itself is quite large and often exceeds 3 inches in length. A couple of Oriental species of Rana lay their eggs out of water on leaves or stones or even in the mud near the bank, but these egg masses are essentially unmodified and the larvae which escape from them soon make their way into the water. This habit of laying its eggs out of water is also found in the South African genus PAryno- batrachus. All the species of Stawrois, a genus characteristic of mountain-torrent regions of southeastern Asia, lay their eggs in the pools below the cascades. These eggs hatch out into aquatic tadpoles that are especially adapted for life in mountain torrents by having large suctorial disks back of the mouth. In the genus Cornufer of the East Indies we find the extreme modification in ranid development in that, instead of hatching out into tadpoles which later metamorphose, development is carried on in the eggs which are laid on land and which hatch out directly into fully formed tiny froglets. Rhacophoridae.—The Old World tree frogs typically lay their eggs in masses of foam on the leaves of plants or other structures above the water. The habits of Rhacophorus leucomystax may be taken as an example. The breeding season is apparently very long, egg foam having been collected from late April through August. The breeding places include the walls of unused manure pools and sometimes the crops in flooded fields. If no suitable pool or other water is available, the egg foam may be laid on the ground during rainy evenings. During the process of egg laying, the female does most of the work 440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 of producing the foam mass. Before the eggs appear she ejects a small amount of fluid, and this she beats into a froth by moving her feet medially and laterally and turning them as she crosses them on the midline. When the foam for holding the eggs has been prepared, the eggs and the fluid come out together. During the egg-laying process, the male is passive, grasping the female under the armpits and simply holding his body closely applied to her back, his eyes half closed. His pelvic region is bent down with the cloacal opening near that of the female. Apparently the eggs are fertilized as they leave the cloaca of the female. When the egg-laying process has been completed, the female stands up on her forelimbs and the male tries to get away from the foam in which the distal ends of his hind legs are buried. The female usually gets away from the foam later by moving her legs and body sideways with the help of large sticky finger disks. The foam is white at first but in a few moments changes to light brown. The eggs, which are without pigmentation, are scat- tered singly or in small groups in the big foam mass but are mostly concentrated near the basal part where the foam is attached to the substrate. The incubation period apparently varies with the tem- perature, and in some cases has been known to take from 6 to 7 days. The tadpoles also hatch in different stages of development. Some of the newly hatched individuals have external gills fully exposed while others have their external gills partly covered by the oper- culum and are much more heavily pigmented. Near the time of hatching, the foam containing the embryos begins to liquefy and the active movement of the fully developed embryos or tadpoles in the liquefied foam drops them into the water below. Sometimes the whole egg foam mass with its contained tadpoles may be washed down by rain into the pool below. When the liquefied foam drops into the water the tiny bubbles in it disappear and the tadpoles swim actively in the water. A few rhacophorids lack the habit of “egg beating.” For example, African frogs of the genus Hyperolius lay their eggs in small clusters directly in the water. Hassina is apparently quite closely related to Hyperolius, and it likewise lacks the habit of “egg beating.” Its eggs are small and pigmented and laid singly or in pairs in the water. Microhylidae.—In. the narrow-mouthed toad, Microhyla carolinen- sis, the eggs are pigmented, firm, and rather distinctively shaped. The complement ranges from 700 to 1,000 eggs which float at the surface film. The tiny tadpoles lack teeth on the mandibles. They metamorphose, in a period ranging from as little as 20 to as much as 70 days, into tiny frogs. This sort of life history is fairly typical of most microhylids but not of all of them. Some species lack the prolonged free-swimming tadpole stage; either the egg hatches as an advanced-staged tadpole or metamorphosis is completed within AMPHIBIANS—GOIN 441 the egg and a tiny froglet hatches out. This is so, for example, with Breviceps pentheri, of British West Africa. In this species the eggs are laid in holes on land and there is no free larval stage at all; the developing embryo lacks many of the typical tadpole structures. The tail is quite large and is presumably used as a respiratory struc- ture, as it is in the genus Hleutherodactylus. The extreme microhylid life history is shown by the genus Hoplophryne of East Africa. Hoplophryne uluguruensis lays its eggs between the leaves of wild bananas or within the nodes of the stems of bamboos which have been split sufficiently to permit the entrance of this small and ex- ceedingly depressed frog. Small amounts of water are retained in the leaves of wild bananas, but its presence has not been determined for the internodal chambers of the bamboos. The eggs hatch into tadpoles which have become specialized, as is the case in certain hylids, for existence in these rather barren environments. They have apparently taken up the habit of eating frog eggs, perhaps of their own species, and the tadpoles are consequently modified. Super- ficially these modifications remind one of those found, for example, in Hyla brunnea. The teeth are reduced to the point of being en- tirely absent, and the tail, like that of Hyla brunnea, is long, slender, and whiplike. These modifications are, of course, apparently sec- ondary and in no sense imply close relationship. Phrynomeridae.—Apparently the African toads deposit their eggs in open water. The eggs hatch out into tadpoles which later meta- morphose much as do most microhylids. DISCUSSION To be somewhat anthropomorphic, it is evident that the amphib- ians are still, today, striving toward elimination of the open-water habitat for their eggs and early larvae, as were the primitive forms that gave rise to the higher vertebrates, in which the amnion is always present. This leads, of course, to the basic problem of what were the life-history modifications that made possible the development of the amniotes. As can be seen from the foregoing survey, the problems arising from the deposition of eggs in open water may be avoided in part or in whole in several ways. There may be an acceleration of develop- ment so that the eggs and larvae are not left for so long a period of time subject to the catastrophies that may befall them in open water. Then, also, there is the retention of the eggs in the body of the mother. This, of course, is possible only when preceded by internal fertiliza- tion. The latter, though, has developed at least three times without leading to the amniote egg, for the modern caecilians, most of the salamanders, and some of the frogs today practice this form of fer- tilization. Then there can be parental care, where the parent, instead 442 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 of abandoning the eggs, takes them with him, or her, as the case may be, and cares for them until development is advanced or even until transformation is complete. Furthermore, the deposition of the eggs in out-of-the-way places has been a successful device for getting the eggs away from open water. They may be deposited on land, in trees, or in little secluded bodies of water where they are more or less isolated, as in the bromeliad-breeding frogs. Correlated with these egg-protecting mechanisms, there may be direct development in which the larval stage is omitted. Since the larva of an amphib- ian is essentially an aquatic form, terrestrial breeding habits elim- inate the need for this stage in the life history. The following analysis, patterned after that of Gadow (1909), lists the major types of amphibian life histories and the families that have at least some representatives exhibiting such modifications. I. Eggs small, the larvae hatching in a comparatively early state of development. A. Eggs laid in water. 1. Eggs laid in open ponds and streams: some representatives in all the families of salamanders except the Amphiumidae and the Pletho- dontidae and in all the families of anurans except the Centrolenidae, Dendrobatidae, and Rhinodermatidae. 2. Eggs laid in underwater crevices and crannies (Plethodontidae) ; in specially walled-off parts of the pond (Hylidae) ; in basins of water collected in bromeliads, bananas, bamboo, ete. (Hylidae and Micro- hylidae) ; or in foamy masses (Leptodactylidae). B. Eggs deposited out of water. 1. In holes, under logs, rocks, or debris, from which the larvae must make their way to the water, sometimes aided by heavy rains: Ambystomatidae, Amphiumidae, Plethodontidae, Leptodactylidae, Ranidae, and Rhacophoridae. 2. On leaves (or sphagnum) above the water. The larvae on hatching, drop into the water below: Plethodontidae, Centrolenidae, Hylidae, and Rhacophoridae. II. Eggs relatively large and the young at least initiating metamorphosis while in the egg. A. Eggs deposited in damp situations and perhaps guarded but never earried about by either parent. 1. The young hatching as larvae: Caecilidae, Plethodontidae, Lepto- dactylidae, Hylidae, Ranidae, Rhacophoridae, and Microhylidae. 2. The young hatching as miniature replicas of the adults: Leptodac- tylidae, Leiopelmidae, Rhinodermatidae, Ranidae, Phacophoridae, and Microhylidae. B. Eggs and/or larvae carried about by a parent. 1. By the male. a. Wrapped around the legs: Discoglossidae. b. In the vocal sacs: Rhinodermatidae. ec. On the back: Pelobatidae, Dendrobatidae, Ranidae. 2. By the female. a. Buried in the skin of the back: Pipidae. b. In a pouch or free on the back: Hylidae. AMPHIBIANS—GOIN 443 III. Eggs retained in the oviduct of the female and the young “born alive”: Caecilidae, Proteidae, Salamandridae, Plethodontidae, and Bufonidae. Perhaps the most obvious thing that can be ascertained by a study of the above outline is the fact that there is so little correlation between the life histories of the amphibians and their evolutionary relationship. Here we find a form of copulation in the caecilians and frogs, and internal fertilization without copulation particularly common in the salamanders. We find both small eggs with indirect development (with an intermediate, free-living larval stage), and large eggs with direct development, in the salamanders and in the frogs and toads. It has been shown by Moore (1942) that in certain groups of frogs there is a tendency to have larger eggs toward the Temperate Zones and smaller eggs toward the Tropics but even here there are exceptions (Moore, 1949), for Rana pipiens, the leopard frog, lays larger eggs in Mexico than it does in the northern United States. But this does not explain the tendency toward large eggs and direct development in the leptodactylids, hylids, and rhacophorids, all of which are essentially tropical groups. It appears then that there is nothing about the diverse life his- tories of modern amphibians to give a sure clue to the development of the land egg. Since this is so, perhaps we had best look at rep- tilian reproductive habits and see if it is possible to figure out the combination of factors that made possible the reptile pattern of reproduction. CHARACTERS OF REPTILIAN REPRODUCTION 1. Internal fertilization. This is necessary because the sperm must enter the egg before the shell is deposited around it by the glands of the oviduct. 2. Copulation, an effective and apparently efficient method of achieving internal fertilization. 3. Eggs laid on land in a protected spot. (Sometimes the young are “born alive,” but this is certainly secondary in the reptiles. ) 4, Hgg with yolk mass large enough to carry the embryo through development, until the adult body form is reached. . Development direct without an intermediate larval stage. 6. Egg cleidoic, that is, with a fluid-filled amnion and protective shell. On From a consideration of this list, we can trace a probable course for the evolution of breeding habits in the amphibian stock leading to the reptiles. The first step away from the primitive pattern of laying a large number of unprotected eggs in open water was prob- ably to lay the eggs in a sheltered spot away from the main body of the pond or stream. Next would come deposition of the eggs in a humid, protected spot on land, depending on some mechanism (heavy rains, flooding, falling from overhanging leaf, or transporta- tion by parent) to release and return the newly hatched larvae to the water. Once this stage was reached, an increase in yolk supply in the egg would be advantageous since it would allow the embryo 444 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 to continue development when the releasing mechanism was delayed. With the protection of the eggs, the need for enormous numbers would be lessened, and the female could concentrate on producing a fewer number of large-yolked eggs. A continuation of the trend toward the prolongation of development within the egg would lead eventually to metamorphosis before hatching. With the elimination of the free-living larval period, the typical larval characters would tend to drop out, resulting in direct development. All these stages are represented in the life histories of modern amphibians. They are thus, we can be sure, all practicable ways for an amphibian to reproduce its kind. Furthermore, each step would seem to have a selective advantage over the one before. Somewhere along the line, these amphibian ancestors of the rep- tiles must have adopted the practice of internal fertilization with copulation. This, too, is found in modern amphibians and would seem to be advantageous for animals breeding on land. The stage would now be set for the development of the typical rep- tilian cleidoic egg with its fluid-filled amnion and protective shell. It is hard to visualize these structures evolving in an aquatic egg, but in one that was already terrestrial, anything that reduced the dependence of the developing embryo on environmental moisture would be decidedly advantageous. It is impossible to determine, of course, how these changes were correlated with the anatomical changes by which the amphibian body plan turned into the reptilian body plan, or even to know where we should draw the line separating the two orders. In the present state of our knowledge, it is at least permissible to hypothesize that by about the time the shelled amniote egg had developed, the animal that hatched from it had progressed far enough to be called a reptile, and this seems as good a place as any to draw the line. It has the advantage of being a line that separates the modern forms as well. It seems probable, though, that we should revise our conception of the significance of the cleidoic egg. Perhaps it was not the first reptiles that broke the bond yoking the vertebrates to the immediate vicinity of water for reproduction. It seems more likely that these reptiles descended from amphibians that were already fully terres- trial in their breeding habits, that practiced internal fertilization by copulation, and laid large-yolked eggs in sheltered spots on land, from which the young developed directly with no intermediate aquatic larval stage. As for the other amphibians, it is obvious that many of them have acquired independently one or more of the reptilian breeding charac- teristics listed above, but presumably not since the days when their ancestors paddled about in the Paleozoic puddles has any amphibian acquired them all and thus developed into an amniote. The rest of AMPHIBIANS—GOIN 445 the amphibians are either, evolutionarily speaking, still trying this method or that to avoid leaving their eggs in open water, or else, since reproduction in water seems inevitable, have, as a Chinese philosopher might have advised, learned to relax and enjoy it. LITERATURE CITED Ewer, D. W. 1955. Tetrapod limb. Science, vol. 122, No. 3167, pp. 467-468. Gabow, HANS. 1909. Amphibia and reptiles. xiii-+-668 pp. London. Goin, C. J., and Gorn, O. B. 1956. Further comments on the origin of the tetrapods. Evolution, vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 440-441. GUNTER, G. 1956. Origin of the tetrapod limb. Science, vol. 123, No. 3195, pp. 495-496. INGER, R. F. 1957. Ecological aspects of the origin of the tetrapods. Evolution, vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 373-376. JAMESON, D. L. 1955. Evolutionary trends in the courtship and mating behavior of Salien- tia. Systematic Zool., vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 105-119. Lutz, B. 1947. Trends towards non-aquatic and direct development in frogs. Copeia, No. 4, pp. 242-252. 1948. Ontogenetic evolution in frogs. Evolution, vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 29-39. Moors, J. A. 1942. The role of temperature in speciation of frogs. Biol. Symposia, vol. 6, pp. 189-218. 1949. Geographic variation of adaptive characters in Rana pipiens Schreber. Evolution, vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1-24. Nos.ez, G. K. 1931. Biology of the Amphibia. xiii+-577 pp. New York. Orton, G. 1949. Larval development of Nectophrynoides tornieri (Roux), with com- ments on direct development in frogs. Ann. Carnegie Mus., vol. 31, art. 9, pp. 257-276. 1951. Direct development in frogs. Turtox News, vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 2-6. 1954. Original adaptive significance of the tetrapod limb. Science, vol. 120, No. 3129, pp. 1042-1043. Romer, A. §S. 1957. Origin of amniote egg. Sci. Monthly, vol. 85, pp. 57-63. 1958. Tetrapod limbs and early tetrapod life. Evolution, vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 365-369. i OO ate ha va et i etsy a5 ; a bi a aia hit) oem i ‘i sain AALS j Aaieloni yy i A! 4 ay a he mh “Ted tat erty = a eet) pf by 4 i oA GA Eh hem ahd Hadrict bh, 0 A Study of the Biology of Saturniid Moths in the Canal Zone Biological Area By A. D. BLEsT Department of Zoology, University College, London [With 5 plates] Current evolutionary biology has seen a striking revival of interest in the theory of protective coloration. The essence of the several separate hypotheses of which the theory is composed is that all, or nearly all, animal coloration is meaningful in that it confers pro- tective advantages upon the animals bearing it, and that the various categories of special adaptations, such as procrypsis, the mimicking of palatable forms by those which are distasteful, and the advertise- ment of distasteful forms by bright and contrasting color, have all been evolved in response to selection pressures mediated by predators. The earlier widespread interest in protective adaptations, which was largely fostered by Sir Edward Poulton and his school in Oxford at the end of the 19th century, did not survive in its full vigor to ex- perience the discipline which 20th-century genetic analysis could have imposed upon its largely anecdotal framework. Instead, in the period between the wars, it withered under the critical fire of laboratory zoologists who were unable to accept the apparent gap between the abilities which protective adaptations seemed to demand of the preda- tors against which they had supposedly been evolved, and the abilities which such animals were known, as scientific fact, to possess. To a great extent, this skepticism followed from an experimental discipline of behavioral research which placed too much emphasis upon the simpler reflex and tropistic phenomena. Then, too, nat- ural selection had replaced God in the problem of creation; and its creators, losing faith in their demon, were now unwilling to admit that it was a fine enough instrument to achieve those ends which were manifestly present in nature as fatts accomplis. On the one hand, in the shape of butterflies perfectly resembling dead and moldy leaves, warningly striped and nauseous beetles, or moths equipped with giant owl-like eyes, they could see all the evidence for a sophistication of perceptual ability surely only to be found in man himself: on the 447 536608—60——_30 448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 other, they were aware of a vertebrate world not sharing human abilities in lesser degree, but brutish in the pejorative sense; reflex; qualitatively different. Our hunting fathers told the story Of the sadness of the creatures Pitied the limits and the lack Set in their finished features .. The 20th-century biologist surveyed the white rat im its aseptic cage, solving with deplorable sloth problems barely related to any that it would be likely to encounter in its own unhygienic habitat, glanced with discomfort at the baroque elaboration of natural forms, and proposed, with a conviction which in the worst cases was soon to become hysterical, a series of wholly implausible alternative ex- planations. With these, we need not be concerned here; it is enough to note that they ranged from flat denial of the evidence, to asser- tions that coincidence alone needed to be invoked as a sufficient explanation of it. The renaissance of protective-coloration theory has to a great extent followed the Second World War. The original accounts of tropical insects from which it was derived came from experienced field nat- uralists, such as Bates, Hudson, and Belt. And, again, its redis- covery came very largely from the European group of ethologists, also, basically, field naturalists, who were stimulated by accounts of experimental work on cryptic coloration started between the wars, and admirably summarized in a now classic work by the Cambridge zoologist H. B. Cott (1940). The major problems with which they had to deal may be easily set forth: First of all, faith in the efficiency of selection pressures had to be restored. Secondly, the behavior of predators needed to be so analyzed as to reveal the manner in which the selection pressures created by them must operate. Lastly, the genetic material upon which selection must act and its potentiality for variation had to be related to the findings of the behavior studies. These various lines of approach and some of the findings have been described by Tinbergen (1958). My own connection with these studies began in 1958, when, under the supervision of Dr. N. Tinbergen at Oxford, a program of work was started on the functions of the eyespot patterns of insects. The outcome of this research was a demonstration that the eyelike patterns on the wings of many butterflies do, in fact, serve to scare away avian predators, and that the selective advantages which they confer are of a high order (Blest, 1956, 19572). At this stage in the investigation a further problem was presented; there are groups of insects some 1W.H. Auden, Collected shorter poems. London, 1950. BIOLOGY OF SATURNIID MOTHS—BLEST 449 of whose members possess eyespot patterns, while their near relatives are either aposematically colored, or are equipped with procryptic patterns. Eyespots are characteristically concealed at rest, and ex- hibited in response to disturbance by sudden movements of the por- tions of the body either bearing them or concealing them. What, then, is the relation between the distinct modes of behavior that might be expected to be linked with the various types of coloration and from what evolutionary source have they been derived? Numerous studies have testified to the close association between signal movements and the morphological patterns that they display (Tinbergen, 1952; Blest, in press [B]) ; here was an ideal case for a comparative investigation. The most readily available group of insects was the tropical Sat- urniidae, or “Emperor moths,” living pupae of which are freely available in the commercial market where they satisfy the demands of amateur lepidopterists. The results of this survey will be described later in detail; here we may note that it soon became apparent that a full understanding of the relationship between the different types of display could only be obtained by research in the field. In addition, yet another problem had revealed itself: the neotropi- cal hemileucine saturniid moths, whenever they settle into the rest position from flight, perform a rhythmic side-to-side “rocking”’ move- ment of the entire body, in which the head rotates through an are around the longitudinal axis of the body, and the legs of each side are alternately flexed and extended. This striking movement was first described by Dr. Margaret Bastock and myself (Bastock and Blest, 1958) in the Brazilian Automeris aurantiaca Weymer. A de- tailed analysis showed that, if the variants introduced by age are controlled, essentially the strength of the rocking response, as meas- ured by the number of oscillations performed, is influenced solely by the duration of the preceding flight performance, to which it bears a strictly linear relationship (fig. 1) (Blest, 1958). Now this relationship is of particular interest, for it is clearly very similar to that which the rhythmic components of the honey-bee communication dance bear to the distance flown between foraging ground and hive (Steche, 1957; Von Frisch and Jander, 1957). Since the bee dance is the only example of animal language that is comparable in its apparent achievement to our own, any evidence that may throw light on its physiological and evolutionary antecedents is of immense inter- est. Thus the causal basis of the moths’ behavior had to be deter- mined, as well as its role in communication or otherwise. In fact, no definite answers to this last problem of function have been obtained; but, to anticipate, we shall see that the results of observations on the rocking response can be combined with a knowl- edge of the protective displays to yield a new approach to a wholly distinct and quite fundamental problem in modern biology: the 450 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Age 1.5 bres. ‘Age 6+ 2hrs. 206 Strength of the rocking response 0 5 10 15 20 25 39 35 Flight duration (minutes) Ficure 1.—The relation between the strength of the’rocking’response, measured as the num- ber of oscillations of the side-to-side movement performed, and the duration of a preceding period of forced, tethered flight for Automeris aurantiaca at 1.5 hours, and 6+2 hours after eclosion. phenomenon of specific age. All, or nearly all, animals undergo senescent change; all ultimately die; and the duration of life, or, at least, the average pattern of longevity, is a property that is char- acteristic of a given species. Yet in no animal group have the mechanisms responsible for these neatly adjusted limitations of life- span been worked out. At the beginning of July 1958, through the good offices of the Director of the Canal Zone Biological Area, Dr. Martin Moynihan, and aided by a grant from the U.S. National Science Foundation to the Smithsonian Institution, fieldwork on the Central American Saturniidae was finally started. BIOLOGY OF SATURNIID MOTHS—BLEST 451 Barro Colorado Island lies in Gatun Lake. Consisting of some 13 square miles of seasonal tropical evergreen forest, it was estab- lished artificially when the surrounding area of lower land was flooded during the construction of the Panama Canal. The forest is intersected by trails, which are maintained by the staff of the re- search station, covering the whole island save for the clearing in which the living accommodation and laboratories are placed. The forest itself is not, as has sometimes been stated, virgin, for areas of it were under cultivation before it was taken over as a biological reserve in 1923. While for the botanist, therefore, the basic ecologi- cal status of much of the forest may appear questionable, for the zoologist, and especially for the invertebrate zoologist, the whole area is uniquely suitable for the investigation of tropical biology. To date the greater part of the intensive work carried out on the island since its inception has been faunistic; thus the necessary founda- tion for ecological research has been laid to a degree which probably no other New World tropical area can equal. Even so, discoveries can still be made even in the best-worked groups. The arachnids are among the best known of the island’s invertebrates, thanks to the redoubtable efforts of Prof. A. M. Chickering: nevertheless I found three specimens of a ricinuleid near to Cryptocellus emargi- natus Kiwing living under stones in deep litter on the forest floor. While the order has been found, mostly as single specimens, in Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Colombia, this is the first record for Panama. For the biologist who has been accustomed to the undemanding conditions of temperate woodlands, the inaccessibilty of the greater part of the tropical fauna is disconcerting. Much of the copious in- sect life is confined to the forest canopy some 90 feet or more above the forest floor. There is an abundance of different species even within restricted taxonomic groups, and this prolific speciation is one of the most important and still imperfectly understood features of tropical zoology. In the course of a 6-month period, some 35 species of saturniid moths were attracted to lights placed in the laboratory clearing, and this tally by no means exhausted the known fauna of the area. Many of the species were common. Yet the picture yielded by attempts to search for the larvae was a very different one. Those of only one species, Lonomia cynira, were found commonly, and this because of their habit of resting in smal] groups on the trunks of slender second-growth trees, at a height of some 2 to 4 feet above the ground. Very occasionally the larvae of some six other species were encountered, generally as fully grown individuals in their last instar, when the initially gregarious caterpillars have scattered and are living singly on their food plants. Yet this meager harvest was the result of several weeks of quite frequent searching. Most of the larvae of 452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 the 4,000-odd species of Lepidoptera recorded from the island may be assumed to feed in the canopy, where they are beyond the reach of the biologist. The rearing of tropical insects, too, is not made easy by the presence of their normal pathogens. To breed tropical saturniids in a European laboratory is paradoxically an easy business, for they will accept a wide range of substitute food plants and do not readily become infected with bacterial or virus disease. In the Tropics, the mortality from disease is high, and most species have specialized feed- ing habits which are not easily determined. For the greater part of the work, then, the moths were attracted to photoflood lights placed on the outside walls of the laboratories. While a few moths would generally come to light on most evenings, the peak emergences always occurred just before the new moon. They did not fly uniformly throughout the night; there appear to be bursts of activity at localized times, the main flights occurring in particular at about 1a.m.and4a.m. A given species, too, often has a preferred flight time, which in some cases may be highly restricted. Dirphia (Periphoba) hircia, for example, on Barro Colorado, tended to restrict its activity to the 4 a.m. flight, and on each night the whole flight of the small population near the laboratory was apparently completed within a 10-minute period. Most of the moths arriving at light were, from their perfect condition, quite clearly undergoing their first flight after emergence from the pupa, for when flying under tropical conditions these very large moths soon suffer conspicuous damage to their wings. Conveniently, these moths are highly resistant to a wide variety of quite drastic experimental procedures. Usually, after capture at an environmental temperature of some 26° to 29° C. they were stored in an icebox at 6° C. overnight, yet comparison with individuals which had not been so stored showed that their behavior was in no way impaired by this treatment. After they had been allowed to warm up to the surrounding temperature, their display behavior was ex- amined by gently stimulating them. Much of the actions that re- sulted was recorded on film and on 35-mm. color transparencies. The protective displays of saturniid moths, unlike those of mantids, do not require very specific stimuli for their release. Four subfami- lies are found on Barro Colorado: the Rhescyntinae, Citheroniinae, Hemileucinae, and Saturniinae. Of these four, only the Rhescyntinae and Saturniinae show any responsiveness when at rest to moving visual stimuli—shadows or solid objects in their vicinity, and the like. They will also respond to tactile stimuli, which alone elicit the protective displays of the other two subfamilies. The protective behavior falls into the following main categories: (1) Behavior which, teleologically speaking, is directed toward the quickest method of escape available to the insect. Thus, Copaxa BIOLOGY OF SATURNIID MOTHS—BLEST 453 decrescens at rest shows a generalized resemblance to dead, brownish foliage. Tactile stimuli cause the moth to fly suddenly away, using the first depression stroke of its flight response to project it from the vertical substrate upon which it is resting. (2) The use of eyespot patterns. These, in the New World Hemi- leucinae, are exclusively borne on the hind wings. The moths when at rest show a generalized resemblance to dead and folded leaves. When the moths are touched lightly, the forewings are moved forward to expose the eyespots. The moth may also make a series of little “hops” by performing depression flicks of the wings. The stages in such a display performance are illustrated in plate 2, figures 1 and 2. These eyespot patterns appear to “parasitize” the inborn responses of small avian predators to their own enemies. It has been shown experimentally that the simultaneous presentation of an eyespot pattern with a prey object will inhibit or delay the feeding re- sponses of various small European passerines, and may even frighten them away (Blest, 1957a). This is not a very efficient form of pro- tective coloration, for the individual predators soon become habituated to the eyespots and learn to ignore them. (3) The acquisition of a nauseous taste or odor, coupled with an aposematic or “warning” display. Examples of these displays are shown in plate 5. Even within the Hemileucinae the nature of the nauseous material varies. Déirphia spp. possess an unpleasant, or, in the case of D. (Periphoba) spp., a foul odor, and nauseous body fluids and meconium. The advanced species of Hylesia are equipped with venomous hairs on the abdomen; so venomous, in fact, that in areas of Peru and Venezuela where certain species may, periodically, emerge in large numbers, there have been sporadic outbreaks of an eczematous skin condition caused by contact with the loose hairs. It has been shown that birds can learn to avoid prey objects after no more than one or a few encounters, if the prey is sufficiently nauseous (see reviews in Cott, 1940, and Blest, 1957b), and experi- ments on Barro Colorado have shown that marmosets learn with similar rapidity. This is an efficient mode of coloration, for, by the sacrifice of a relatively small proportion of the population, the ma- jority of the individuals are heavily protected. Generally, such species are equipped with conspicuous or gaudy coloration—striped or spotted patterns with a predominance of yellow, red, white, and black pigmentation; adaptively, this is certainly a device to improve the rapidity of the predators’ learning processes. Now, it is apparent that the efficiencies of these various protective devices are not equal. Habituation to eyespot patterns occurs rapidly ; one might be tempted to suppose that the interpolated hopping move- ments must necessarily increase the intimidating effect of the display but this is not so. While some individual birds may become so 454 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 frightened of displaying moths that they will in the end wholly avoid them, others, perhaps the majority, after habituation reach a state in which the rhythmic movements act, as do most prey movements, to release attack. Thus the possession of rhythmic display components is not an unmixed blessing (Blest, 1957b), and these eyespot displays are possibly among the least efficient modes of protective behavior; they are, in fact, always lines of defense secondary to cryptic or pro- cryptic coloration. These latter modes of coloration, when unaccom- panied by secondary defense mechanisms, have their own typical protective behavior. Moths possessing specialized procryptic behavior closely resemble objects found commonly in their environment, such as dead leaves, bark, etc., and their behavior is closely adapted to their coloration. They exhibit no display of any kind, and are unresponsive even to violent stimulation. They will, indeed, withstand interference to the point of mutilation without responding. One response to interfer- ence is, however, retained: the righting response. Moths placed on their backs in an inverted position right themselves by elevating all the wings so that their dorsal surfaces touch over the thorax. This is an adaptive procedure, for the procryptic patterns of the saturniids are confined to the upper surfaces of the wings in all but a few cases. Procryptic coloration and behavior necessitate certain correlated trends; for example, dispersion in the environment sufficient to prevent too frequent prey-predator encounters (de Ruiter, 1955). Now the suggestion was earlier made (Blest, 1957b), on the basis of a small survey of the behavior of the world Saturniidae, that these various modes of display behavior were not evolved independently within the group, but were instead evolved as a series in which ad- vanced species gained displays of high efficiency by modifying both their coloration and behavior from the primitive displays possessed by their ancestors. The primitive display type was supposedly the simple rhythmic display, whose components were suggested to be derived from flight movements. The heavy-bodied members of the family are unable to fly from rest until they have first raised the working temperature of their thoracic muscles to some 35° C. by a period of “shivering.” If they are strongly stimulated during the shivering process, they will perform more-or-less ineffectual flapping movements of the wings. It seemed reasonable to argue that the selection and stabiliza- tion of certain components of these flapping movements might have given rise to rhythmic displays, the subsequent modification of which yielded the remaining display types in this order: First, the eyespot patterns from which the rhythmic components are missing; next, as alternatives, cryptic coloration and behavior, and the various degrees of aposematic display. Finally, in the case of aposematic insects, Smithsonian Report, 1959—Blest PLATE 1 The typical resting posture of the Hemileucinae. A male Automeris aurantiaca. Smithsonian Report, 1959—Blest PLATE 2 n 1. Automeris liberia performing a primitive rhythmic display. Note that the abdomen 1 concealed by the hind wings. ‘Trinidad. 2. Automeris egeus performing a rhythmic display. ‘Trinidad. dxo Ayjeiqied 0} poqoeioid ole sduIM puly oy2 1eyI NI “poqe usaq oArYy szuouod j ‘Aejdsip on¥4s ev Burutsojiod ‘vovyuvsnv “fp “dds siamomnp peyiuapiun PLATE 3 nw o a ~ ce} a. v ~ = 1 ra 9 a =< = E vn} Smithsonian Report, 1959—Blest PLATE 4 1. Automerina auletes at rest. Note the highly specialized cryptic markings. Panama. 2. Automerina auletes displaying after a tactile disturbance. Note the elevation of the wings, the curling of the abdomen, and the reduced eyespots. Panama. aQ Smithsonian Report, 1959—Blest PLATE 5 ae 1. Dirphia (Periphoba) sp. in display. Note the strong elevation of the wings, the curled and banded abdomen, and the protracted, pale antenna. Panama. 2. Hylesia canitia in display. Note the total elevation of the wings. The abdominal hairs are poisonous. ‘Trinidad. BIOLOGY OF SATURNIID MOTHS—BLEST 455 certain species in the genera Hudyaria and Cerodirphia appear to have acquired so great a level of distastefulness linked with general- ized aposematic coloration that display has become unnecessary, and is no longer maintained by selection. Although individuals of these species show themselves capable of performing normal displays, in most they are either transient or absent; yet the existence of “per- fect” displays in this small minority of individuals leaves no doubt that this elimination of the aposematic display pattern has been a secondary change. A major aim, then, of the work on Barro Colorado was the exam- ination of this evolutionary succession in a more narrowly defined range of species, by which it was hoped that the intermediate stages between the display types would be revealed. This rather optimistic expectation was, surprisingly, fulfilled; 21 species of hemileucines were found on Barro Colorado. Twelve more species were observed during a 6-week period spent in the Arima Valley of Trinidad, fol- lowing a generous invitation from the New York Zoological Society to work for a period at their Trinidad Field Station. With the addi- tion of 10 species seen as the result of purchasing live pupae from Argentina, Mexico, and Brazil, the total is now 43 species within this subfamily alone. This series is a particularly valuable one, since the Hemileucinae exhibit most of the major types of protective col- oration found in the Saturniidae, and the interrelationships between them can be readily worked out. There is no space in this article to present the detailed arguments through which the evolutionary succession has been deduced, but the changes which are believed to have occurred are as follows: The primitive display type within the Hemileucinae is, in fact, a rhythmic display, linked with hindwing eyespot patterns, in which the forewings are protracted following tactile disturbance to expose the eyespots, and the moth executes little hops by means of depression flicks of the wings. This type of behavior is found in a large number of species of the genus Automeris (13 out of the 20 species so far seen). The flicking movements are regularly spaced in time, at inter- vals of between 0.5 and 1 second, and the complete flick movement itself is completed within little more than one-tenth of a second. Analyzed with the ciné camera each flick is found to be a complete flight stroke appearing in isolation, and if the moths are very strongly stimulated, intermediates between true flapping flight and the ritual- ized display flicks can often be obtained. In some species of Auto- meris (e.g., A. janus), the flick movements are accompanied by quite perceptible “shivering” movements of the wings; the warming-up movements preparatory to flight have not been wholly eliminated from the displays. Since it is known that shivering movements by 456 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 themselves stimulate small birds to attack, it is reasonable to suppose that selection should act to eliminate these movements, and such has been the case. The next stage in the evolutionary succession is a simple one: the elimination of the rhythmic components, which has been achieved merely by raising their threshold. Some species, for example, A. memusae, perform the rhythmic part of their display to very light tactile stimulation; others (e.g., A. coresus) require strong tactile stimulation before it can be elicited, even to the point of mutilation. Further species, such as A. tridens, appear to be behaviorally poly- morphic. Some individuals of a population can be made to “hop” if violently treated, others cannot, and the differences are individually consistent over periods of days; finally, some species (e.g., A. godarti) never perform a rhythmic display. Meanwhile, certain other changes have been taking place. Whereas no species of Automeris is highly unpalatable, there are at least dif- ferences in their degree of acceptability to predators. A. fouchert is eaten readily by coatis and by the relatively unfastidious mar- mosets. A. junonia is accepted by marmosets but rejected by coatis. Whether this trend toward unpalatability is another aspect of the changes in the display pattern is not yet certainly known, but it seems likely. Certainly, an increasing feature of the more specialized displays is the introduction of curling components of the abdomen. In the species with full eyespot displays, this component merely tends to increase the apparent size of the displaying moth. But, ultimately, it becomes linked with another evolutionary trend, the reduction and, eventually, the elimination of the eyespot patterns themselves. Now in some species, such as Automeris aurantiaca, the eyespots have become reduced; the abdomen, on the other hand, is more strongly curled during display, and especially so in females, whose abdomens are so swollen with eggs that, curled, they present a series of greenish-white bars (the egg mass shining through the inter- seemental membrane). The hindwings are also protracted so that the abdomen is made visible from above. There is also a tendency for both pairs of wings to be somewhat elevated. In more highly evolved species (e.g., Automerina auletes, Hyperchiria nausica) the abdominal curling is yet more marked, and the wings are even more strongly elevated, now exposing the lateral aspects of the abdomen while not wholly concealing the small eyespots. This little series has been followed out in a very restricted group of closely related genera. The next stages are not found in this group, but appear to follow from it so logically that there is no doubt of their starting point. The genus Hylesia contains a large number of small brownish moths, clearly derived from the Automeris group of genera, probably from Gamelia (Michener, 1952). Most, BIOLOGY OF SATURNIID MOTHS—BLEST ANS) but not all, of the species are equipped with poisonous abdominal hairs. The species which independent characters indicate to be the most primitive possess extremely tiny vestigial eyespots. In Hylesia nanus, at least, these are not exhibited during the display, for the wings are so strongly elevated that their dorsal surfaces touch over the insect’s back. Here, however, there is no abdominal curling component. In the vast majority of Zylesia the eyespots have been eliminated altogether, the abdominal curling components are exag- gerated to the point at which the terminalia are approximated to the ventral surface of the thorax in display, and the insects are definitely distasteful, for they are rejected by marmosets and coatis. Throughout these displays the antennae, which are small, are kept retracted against the sides of the thorax, where they are concealed among the concolorous thoracic hair. The final episode of evolu- tionary history, in which the antennae are incorporated into the displays, again necessitates a jump to a further group of genera, that containing Dirphia and its allies. These moths do not possess poisonous hairs, but they are malodor- ous, and in palatability tests with marmosets and coatis, unequivocally distasteful. They are also tough. While few Automeris will with- stand a bite from a marmoset without suffering disablement, the moths in the present group will withstand a great deal of interfer- ence without distress. Primitively, the antennae are small and not exhibited during display (e.g., Molippa simillima, MW. latemedia, Dirphia (Dirphiopsis) ewmedide, D. (D.) agis). In Dirphia (Dir- phia) avia, they are protracted throughout display, and are relatively larger. In D. (Periphoba) spp. they are very much larger, bright lemon yellow, and clearly serve as an aposematic signal in themselves. Finally, in this group, as we have seen, the degree of distastefulness has apparently reached a point at which over-all aposematic coloration independent of display has become a possibility, and sustained displays are no longer performed. The whole series is summarized in plates 2-5. Thus all the hypothetical stages in a long series of evolutionary change have been found to be present in contemporary species, so neatly dovetailed that we can have confidence in their validity. While they may be extended to include the various other types of protective coloration, to do so would require a discussion of some of the other saturniid subfamilies in which the best evidence is to be found, and for this there is no space in this article. Now the mode of protective coloration should have one important potential evolutionary consequence which has hitherto been over- looked: the modification of lifespan. Once the individual insect’s reproductive life is over, its further fate as an individual might be supposed to exert no influence upon the survival and reproductive 458 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 tL OR 0 i. NOR Pe: pee R PA cs es ‘ = H ow 47% ' c ° ; v rt wi 5 ' x ® é w i & 6 : a. < 1 vy 1 © p SA Ai oa : & G ' © 8r; 1 = 3 1 " H © a 9, & Ficure 2.—The general iform of the rocking E response. A, The extremes of movement in = ‘ Dirphia eumedide as seen from in front, the » 1 ¢ wings having been removed. The two £ \ drawings represent the farthest points = i reached in a left and a right swing respec- tively. B, The pattern and timing of the lil ¢ S response in D. (Periphoba) hircia. Note the acceleration of the response toward its close. In this species the head alone is 12+. 4 moved. : 13 14 B. capacity of the species as a whole. In fact, it has been argued (Medawar, 1952) that, in most cases, the decline in reproductive po- tential with age is necessarily accompanied by a decrease in the selective forces acting on the individual. Exceptions to this general- ization have been recognized in the social animals, where group selec- tion can act to lengthen the postreproductive life of individuals whose BIOLOGY OF SATURNIID MOTHS—BLEST 459 experience is of value to the social unit. Despite the plausibility of this argument, and the clear evidence for the action of group selec- tion which the elaborately differentiated sterile castes of the social insects unequivocally present, Williams (1957) has dismissed the role of group selection as an important factor in the modulation of postreproductive longevities. The types of protective coloration that have been described above all have one feature in common: they impose patterns of learning upon the predators against which they are directed. Consider the outcome, first, of an encounter between a naive predator and a palat- able procryptic prey. The loss of the individual prey cannot influ- ence the reproductive capacity of the residual prey population di- rectly ; but the predator has now learned to a greater or lesser degree how to find more preys, and the lesson must act to the disadvantage of the prey population. The probability that the predator population will learn to find preys will be increased the longer the preys live. Thus, if group selection is able to act, we must expect it to reduce the post- reproductive longevity. Conversely, an unpalatable aposematic postreproductive prey trains the naive predator to avoid other members of the population, and group selection should act to augment their postreproductive lifespan. How well do the hemileucines fit in with this evolutionary scheme? In the first place, group selection can surely act in this case: hemi- leucine females lay their total complement of eggs in batches, over a period of from one toa few days. The larvae are typically gregarious until the final instars, grown synchronously, pupate at about the same time, and emerge over a period of a few days in phase with a lunar cycle. Thus the siblings derived from each female are available at the same time in the same ecological areas for the action of group selection. So far the data available appear to support the hypothesis well: the procryptic Lonomia cynira is short lived—at 26° to 29° C. none out of 40 odd individuals hatched from pupae lived for longer than 4 days, and most had died by the third day from eclosion. The distasteful Dirphia (Periphoba) hircia is long lived, certainly for 10 to 14 days after capture, and similar longevities have been noted for D. (Dirphiopsis) eumedide and D. (D.) agis. However, this part of the hypothesis may only be reliably tested when more data, obtained under controlled conditions, become available from further field and laboratory studies. As far as life tables are concerned, at the moment we have none, but there seems to be every hope that they will bear out the present tentative hypothesis. We can, however, use the rapidly accumulating information about the significance of the rocking response to provide a speculation about 460 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 one of the paths through which the hemileucine lifespan appears to be limited. The general form of the response is shown diagram- matically in figure 2. In intact, free moths it is normally performed whenever the insects settle into their stereotyped resting position, whatever the nature of the preceding activity. All that is required for its release is a contact stimulus to any one of the six tarsi. The number of oscillations of the rhythm is readily counted with the naked eye, and may be used to give a measure of the strength of the response. Moreover, the coordination and release of the rocking pattern are not prejudiced by quite drastic surgical procedures involving gross mutila- tion of the moth. Thus it is peculiarly susceptible to exact laboratory analysis. The full details of this work are to be published elsewhere (Blest, in press); although the experimental procedures are made somewhat complicated by the presence of interactions between the patterns of oviposition and display, in addition to those of flight and settling, the picture given by the interaction between the last two re- sponses is a simple one. The strength of the rocking response is basically determined by two factors alone: (1) The duration of the individual’s preceding flight performance (fig. 1); (2) the age from the act of eclosion from the pupa, the strength of the response diminishing with age. Now, by a happy accident, the species of Automeris which happened to be freely available for experimental work, Automeris aurantiaca, is one whose display behavior is inter- mediate between a typical eyespot display and an aposematic display of the Dirphia or Hylesia type, and, to a great extent it shares the toughness of these aposematic insects. It is peculiarly resilient to experimental interference; moths have been flown and tested for the strength of the rocking response after removal of the abdomen, the replacement of their blood by Ringer’s solutions containing various amounts of added blood sugars, the removal of their antennae and of the wind receptors of the head, and the complete section of the indi- rect flight muscles and bilateral excision of the wing bases. None of these procedures prejudices the relation between flight perform- ance and the strength of the rocking response. From this and other evidence of a more complex and less direct nature, we can conclude that these interactions are controlled by the central nervous system without any feedback from the state of metabolic reserves, or from the exteroceptive or proprioceptive consequences of flight being in- volved; all that is required for the registration of flight performance in the central nervous system and its subsequent eapression in terms of the rocking response is that the normal pathways for the elicitation and maintenance of flight should be stimulated, and that flight itself should be performed. In the experiments that have just been inad- equately outlined the moths were suspended during flight from artery forceps holding a small pinch of the abdominal cuticle; yet the in- BIOLOGY OF SATURNIID MOTHS—BLEST 461 cremental course of the rocking response did not differ from that found in free-flying moths. If the moths are suspended and receive the appropriate stimuli for flight without flight being released (prep- arations may, for a variety of reasons, become refractory), the rock- ing response does not increase in strength. What is being registered, therefore, is the duration of the activity of some part of the central nervous system which excites and regulates the flight response. This situation is of peculiar interest because the rocking response is stable to retesting for periods of at least 90 minutes, and probably for longer; hence, the whole process of registration is comparable in some respects to a learning process in that a stable change is imposed upon the nervous system. It differs from conventional learning processes in that there is no problem of perceptual filtering to complicate the issue, and the quantitative and qualitative nature of the output is rigidly determined. While this simplicity and rigidity may be for- mally inconvenient for the learning theorist, it offers experimental ad- vantages for an attack on the physiology of learning processes which it is hoped may one day be put to proper use. However, it is a different aspect of the rocking response which bears upon the problem of lifespan. A statistical analysis of the relations between rocking pattern and other responses has shown that it is linked to a system that exerts an inhibitory “brake” action on flight behavior. Apparently the strength of the rocking response is in some sense a measure of the strength of this inhibitory potential. If the rocking response is strong, then the threshold of the flight response tends to be high and its persistence poor. Although these parameters of flight performance have not yet been placed on a firm quantitative basis in relation to the rocking po- tential, it is already apparent that in this respect the quantitative im- plications of the rocking response are considerably less strict than in the case of the relationship to flight performance per se. Now the strength of the rocking potential follows a definite course with age. Immediately after hatching from the pupa it is strong; thereafter, it falls off, most steeply in the few hours that immediately follow the act of eclosion from the pupa. Moreover, the slopes of the regression of rocking response on flight time (fig. 1) also fall off (fig. 3). Thus, ultimately, an age is reached at which (a) no overt rocking move- ment can be performed, and (0) all flight durations would, in princi- ple, in any case yield the same rocking strength, for the regression coefficients have fallen to zero. Since the rocking potential is held to be linked to an inhibitory potential, it may be argued that the conclu- sion of these age changes in the rocking response should see the total disinhibition of flight. Hemileucine moths do not feed, and their mouth parts are, in fact, vestigial; they are partially closed metabolic systems, and their life- 462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 c¢) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Age (days) Ficure 3.—The relation between the regression coefficients of rocking response strength on flight time and age from eclosion. (See also fig. 1.) spans have a necessary upper limit which is determined by their food reserves at hatching. The relaxation of the brake on flight behavior must result in an immediately ensuing consumption of metabolic reserves, which will prove fatal. An upper limit to the hemileucine lifespan, then, is set by a physiological “clock” located in the central nervous system, and it is reasonable to examine the possibility that selection has acted upon the characteristics of this clock to modulate the longevities of different species. So far the available information is in excellent accord with this general hypothesis. For Automeris aurantiaca the calculated upper limit is about 9 to 10 days at 20° C., which is in good agreement with the order of the lifespan cbserved at this temperature. Although in virgin females flight behavior is blocked by inhibition from competing reproductive responses, namely, the assumption of the specialized calling posture in which receptive females await the arrival of mates, the death of males is preceded by just that burst of violent and un- BIOLOGY OF SATURNIID MOTHS—BLEST 463 regulated flight behavior which the present theory demands. Simi- larly, in the period immediately before death, a mere 2 to 3 days after hatching, the procryptic Lonomia cynira shows similar unregulated activity. And, as we would expect, the rate of decay of the inhibitory “clock,” as measured by the changes in the rocking potential, is ex- tremely fast. Overt rocking responses in this species may disappear by the end of the second day from hatching. Conversely, in the long- lived and aposematic D. (Periphoba) hircia, the rocking potential declines extremely slowly, and strong rocking responses can still be observed as much as 10 days after capture. However, we still require exact measurements of the characteristics of these clocks; and, as yet, there is nothing known as to the way that sexual activity may modify their performance, although there seems to be a possibility that it may do so. Certainly this is a very special case: even in the closely related Citheroniinae and Saturniinae there seems to be no parallel to this clock system. For ourselves the con- comitants of the aging process present a familiar picture of failing sexual powers, increasing rigidity of outlook, and overall physical deterioration; the hemileucines, on the contrary, expire in a final blaze of hyperactive glory. Why then, should their aging and death so particularly interest us? The answer to this is twofold: First, as has already been mentioned, no previous biological material has been able to suggest precise paths through which natural selection can act to alter longevities. It has generally been assumed that selection, where it is able to act, must of necessity tend to lengthen lifespans (Williams, 1957). The recognition that, given an initially restricted lifespan, the mechanisms of aging may be of such a kind as to allow selection to modify the rates at which they proceed in either direction, may open the way to a more ration- ally planned approach to some of the problems of causation. Sec- ond, the apparent limitation of the lifespans by a neural clock implies that in this case the phenomena of specific lifespan are perhaps con- trolled by a unitary leading process. Now this process is certainly one which is unlikely to have any very general application in the animal kingdom. Attempts are still being made to provide general theories of senescence; examples such as that of the Hemileucinae stress the difficulties attending these oversimplified assaults upon what is beyond doubt a complex and specifically variable problem. This report has had to cover a good deal of ground in a somewhat perfunctory manner, and it may be felt that some of the speculations go too far beyond the existing evidence; it is, in fact, less a report than a blueprint for future research. The justification for these extravagances lies in the way in which the whole course of this work illustrates the often fortuitous advantages that may be derived from a broad evolutionary study conducted in a tropical environment. 536608—60-——31 464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 What was originally to be a simple survey of the modes of action of protective devices and their evolutionary consequences has developed in such a way as to bear upon quite distant issues of fundamental interest. Laboratory workers sometimes hold that the further ex- ploration of comparative studies is not likely to yield much new insight into basic problems. This work provides an example of the manner in which a comparative field study can suggest the types of biological material best suited to the solution of the difficulties posed by special areas of research. LITERATURE CITED BASTOCK, MARGARET, and BuEsT, A. D. 1958. An analysis of behaviour sequences in Automeris aurantiaca (Weym.) (Lepidoptera). Behaviour, vol. 12, pp. 243-284. Best, A. D. 1956. Protective coloration and animal behaviour. Nature, vol. 178, pp. 1190-1191. 1957a. The function of eyespot patterns in the Lepidoptera. Behaviour, vol. 11, pp. 209-255. 1957b. The evolution of protective displays in the Saturnioidea and Sphingidae (Lepidoptera). Behaviour, vol. 11, pp. 257-310. 1958. Interaction between consecutive responses in a hemileucid moth, and the evolution of insect communication. Nature, vol. 181, pp. 1077-1078. The evolution, ontogeny and quantitative control of the settling move- ments of some New World saturniid moths, with some comments on distance communication by honey-bees. Behaviour (in press). [A.] The concept of ritualisation. Jn Modern Problems in the Behaviour of Man and Animals, ed. W. H. Thorpe and O. L. Zangwill. Cam- bridge Univ. Press (in press). [B.] Cort, H. B. 1940. Adaptive coloration in animals. London. DE Ruiter, L. 1955. Countershading in caterpillars. Arch. Néerl. Zool., vol. 11, pp. 285-341. MeEpAwar, P. B. 1952. An unsolved problem in biology. London. MICHENER, C. D. 1952. The Saturniidae of the Western Hemisphere. Morphology, phylogeny and classification. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 98, pp. 341-501. STEcHE, W. 1957. Beitrage zur Analyse der Bienentanze. Teil I. Insects Sociaux, vol. 4, pp. 305-318. TINBERGEN, N. 1952. Derived activities; their causation, biological significance, origin, and emancipation during evolution. Quart. Rev. Biol., vol. 27, pp. 1-82. 1958. Curious naturalists. Oxford. VON FriscH, K., and JANDER, R. 1957. Uber die Schwanzeltanz der Bienen. Zeitschr. Vergl. Physiol., vol. 40, pp. 239-263. WILLIAMS, G. C. 1957. Pleiotropy, natural selection, and the evolution of senescence. Evolu- tion, vol. 11, pp. 198-411. Evolution of Knowledge Concerning the Roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides ' By BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ? Agricultural Research Service U.S. Department of Agriculture [With 2 plates] No HELMINTH is more familiar to laymen than the large intestinal roundworm that bears the name Ascaris lumbricoides. An intimate companion of man since time immemorial, and known to Hippocrates as the most conspicuous member of man’s intestinal worms, A. dum- bricoides was baptized in a zoological sense, along with its host Homo sapiens, in 1758—the date which marks the beginning of binomial zoological nomenclature. In recent years the long-sustained associa- tion between this nematode parasite and man has been considerably weakened, if not severed, wherever sanitary barriers have been inter- posed between the two. If the parasite has practically disappeared from its human host in urban and other well-sanitated areas, it still lives on a lavish scale in the populations of several continents, where millions of people are continuously exposed to its attacks at an apparently undiminishing rate. PREVALENCE OF ASCARIS Throughout the Middle Ages—probably also long before that time—and extending well into the 19th century, Ascaris was a wide- spread parasite of man practically throughout Europe. According to Stoll’s (25)% estimate of the extent of the current human helminthic infections throughout the world, Ascaris is of more common occur- rence than any of the other worms known to parasitize man. Stoll concluded that nearly 650 million human beings, about one-fourth of the estimated world’s population, serve as hosts to this helminth. Of those so affected, about 75 percent live in Asia. a b TUL ahah. 4 Pee Chie Pane ae. Fn ae hehe: aan ig ‘ negate _ 1 ie , : h me Te The Protection of Fauna in the U.S.S.R.! By G. P. DEMENTIEV Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. Translated by John Covert Boyd 3d? THE PROTECTION of nature in the U.S.S.R., and particularly of the fauna, is a problem as vast as it is complicated. The solution of this problem requires extensive and varied measures. This article will deal only with those affecting vertebrates. In our country, with its immense area and abundant and varied natural resources (there are 300 species of mammals, 700 of birds, 161 of reptiles and amphibians, and 1,500 of fishes and cyclostomata), interest in the fauna dates back to ancient times. It was hunting that occupied the attention of our ancestors. This is quite understandable, for in the Middle Ages hunting played an important part of the daily life. This does not mean that today hunting as a sport and an industry, as a way of com- ing to understand nature, has lost its value. In the principality of Kiev, and later in the Grand Duchy of Mus- covy in old Russia, the exploitation and, thus, the protection of the fauna formed a branch of governmental administration. This admin- istrative activity developed with the Russian penetration into Siberia in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. The establishment of a govern- ment monopoly on fur trapping and fur trading required measures guaranteeing to a certain point the protection of fur-bearing animals. The oldest documents pertaining to the control of hunting date from the 11th century; it is the collection of laws known as the “Rus- skaya Pravda.” We must realize that in Russia hunting has never been reserved as an entertainment or a privilege for the nobility or 1 Reprinted by permission from Atlantic Naturalist, vol. 14, No. 1, January—March 1959. 2 Translator’s note: This is a free translation of a talk given by Professor Dementiev at the Sixth Technical Meeting of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources at Edinburgh, Scotland, on June 26, 1956. It was published in French in the Proceedings and Papers of the meeting, London, 1957. Professor Dementiev is a leading Soviet ornithologist and conservationist, professor at the University of Moscow, chairman of the Commission for the Protection of Nature of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., and a corresponding fellow of the American Ornithologists’ Union. I am indebted to Professor Dementiev and to the International Union for the Conserva- tion of Nature and Natural Resources for their consent to this presentation of the article. 483 484 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 for the state. But in another sense, the state has always been greatly interested in hunting and trapping and their produce. The control of the capture of birds for falconry (these birds, especially gyrfalcons, were also, as in Iceland, the objects of diplomatic negotiations) and the strict control of fur trapping in Siberia (called “Yassak,” meaning “a tribute paid in furs”) are examples of this interest. All these measures have contributed toward regulations of a conservationist nature and toward limitations on hunting. It was in this manner that the first natural reserves were organized in Russia, such as the Seven Isles, which lie to the north of the Murmansk coast. This reserve was founded in the 17th century in order to protect the eyries of eyrfalcons. Mention should also be made of the forest sanctuary of Bialovez, which dates from the 16th century. The number of Siberian furs that had to be furnished to Moscow was also controlled. On the frontiers of the Grand Duchy of Muscovy in the 16th century there were organized forest preserves called “Zasseki” (forests used for defensive purposes). Under Tsar Peter the Great, oak forests in European Russia were also protected, except against the needs of Russian naval forces. The protection of the European bison—already in practice because of the hunting interests of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania—was established as early as 1541. It was in the 18th century that many “Zakazniki,” reserves for the protection of game animals, both mammals and birds, were organized. The trapping of beavers was strictly controlled and was forbidden in northern Russia by the 18th century. In the same century no hunting was allowed in the districts of St. Petersburg and Moscow (to the advantage of the hunting of the Imperial Court, though their sport was erratic and rather infrequent). From this we may conclude that the history of the protection of game dates far back. We have only given fragments here. It is necessary to add that in the areas where hunting was largely carried on by the natives (Siberia, Turkestan), these people had always given attention to the conservation of game. These animals served not only as the objects of sport, but as a means of subsistence. In these regions many localities were considered, by tradition, as sanctuaries, The situation by 1917 was not at all reassuring. The hunting law of 1892, which was in effect at this time, considered only the interests of the large landowners; the questions of hunting in the north, in Siberia, and in Turkestan were not being considered seriously. It was only in 1912, 1913, and 1916 that measures were taken for the protection of the sable (Aartes zibellina) in Siberia, when the num- bers of this valuable animal were diminished to a dangerously low point. It should be mentioned that already in the 18th century the law of June 17, 1763, forbade all hunting in Russia between the Ist of PROTECTION OF FAUNA IN U.S.S.R.—DEMENTIEV 485 uP ie Zhuvintas SIBERIA a Bialoviezhskaya Puschta @ Petchora -Tychski c Ly gp Denezhkin Kamen s e Moscow ’ oy Barguzinsk: > \. oes _ & Veronezhst: = rit CASPIAN 3 ¢ > ¢ SEA Tur KESTAN ot ‘ ? “ - A . @ Aksu - Dzhabaglinski ‘le Kyzyl Agachshi : 5] fi 'Hassan-kulishi NS =A paueevene -Balka Geete linch = 750 J.C.B. ‘ ere ets Ficure 1.—The U.S.S.R., showing areas cited. March and the 29th of June (Julian calendar)—certainly a progres- sive measure. At that time hunting success was considered from only one point of view—the quantity of animals taken. The increase of population, the perfection of hunting arms, the steadily rising prices for game—al] this, seen from the economic angle, caused the intensification of hunt- ing as an industry (and asa sport). The negative influence of human activity in our country increased toward the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th. Its chief victims were the sea otter (Znhydris lutris), the northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus), the sable, the European moose (A/ces alces), etc. The statistics are incomplete, but the facts themselves cannot be doubted. The Soviet Government in 1917 had to face altogether new problems in the field of conservation and the exploitation of nature. The funda- mental social changes, the suppression of large estates, and the na- tionalization of the Jand necessitated the founding of a completely new system, both scientific and rational, of exploitation of natural resources. New methods for the conservation of nature were espe- cially necessary. The general characteristics of this system follow. The protection of nature is thought of as an important social problem of scientific, moral, esthetic, and economic character. The solution of this problem certainly has great value to the present gener- ation, as well as to those of the future. Therefore, the protection of 486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 nature should aim at the conservation, the enlarging, and the multi- plication of natural resources, not made by man, for man’s own use. The basis of this protection is an organized and active intervention by man in the natural processes, and, as much as possible, in their regulation. The “passive conservationist” theory appears altogether insufficient. : Such active methods of nature protection must be founded on sci- entific research. Correct solution of the questions of nature protection depends above all upon ecological, both zoological and botanical, re- search. It is evident that the problems of numerical fluctuations of populations, of fertility, of reproduction, of the influence on these proc- esses of changes in the natural surroundings, research on seasonal dis- tribution and on migrations, on geographical and biotical distributions, all have a basic and essential value in the solution of protection prob- lems. Research in the areas mentioned above is made by many of the institutions of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., the academies of sciences in the various republics, and by specialized scientific uni- versities and institutions—for example, the national park system. The activity in this field by the Russian Society for the Protection of Na- ture, founded in 1924, should certainly be mentioned. Ecological questions are treated in hundreds of publications which have served as a basis for practical solution of fauna protection prob- lems in the U.S.S.R. We should note several national park publica- tions on these subjects: research on the sable by Raevski et al.; those on the tiger and the moose by Kaplanov; those on the wintering of birds on the southeastern and southwestern coasts of the Caspian Sea; those by Nasimovitch on the hoofed animals of the Caucasus region, those by Dmitriev on the hoofed animals of the Altai region; re- search on faunal changes since the construction of artificial reservoirs in the Volga system; Zablotski’s work on the European bison; a whole series of publications on the beaver and the moose, etc. A bibliography of these works was published in 1948 and in 1949 by Nasimovitch. There is a special institute which studies the symptoms of fluctuations in game populations. It is from these studies that plans are made for the annual exploitation of the principal species. Thus, the principles and the perspectives of conservation are always taken into consideration in the planning of the use of natural re- sources: water and forests, fish, birds, mammals, etc. We have always tried to consider the natural renewal and growth of these resources. As much as possible is done to improve living conditions of the fauna. For example: the prohibition of water pollution by hydro- carbonates and by waste from chemical plants; the prohibition of water pollution caused by discharge from breweries; new forest ranges and a strictly regulated system of forest exploitation; and the PROTECTION OF FAUNA IN U.S.S.R.—DEMENTIEV 487 greatest possible improvement of habitat, especially in relation to nu- trition and feeding. Finally, the fauna is being actively enriched through introduction and reintroduction. Animal species new to the fauna of the U.S.S.R. are brought in, and species with a low population or of local distribu- tion are increased and dispersed. (3f2] WOI]) sJUe[g *quejd W1OD dy} Ul UOTPIIVA palforquos ATjeoNeu -03 puv poonpul AljequswuolAUYy—'p TUN] PLATE 1 Smithsonian Report, 1959—Mangelsdorf ‘938 UI WUSIAYIP paqvuijsa oy} ‘sivad QQ9‘G Ul USAS saBuLYD dIVseIp Yons Sursnpoid ul peajoaut useq sey uonnjoad pides Ajouranxy *(3Y311) u109 INoy ueIANJeg pepoas-a81x] & pur (2J2]) JUap JYaqui0D JO 189 UOpOU PB YIM porvdurod (19399) sqoo DAK I¥g eY1 Jo suG syst ‘¢ (‘azis enjoy) “savaé QQO‘S 1¥ asay A1ep [eOoIKYD pareloosse jo SUC} RUTUTIAIap UOdIeIOIpeY *adard Juad-] B YIM poivdwios aavg eg WOJf UIOD I1IOyslyo1d Jo sqod aary.], :49qUa9 ‘7 (“[¢] ,,COTKTT JO AayTeA ay} wo ozieyy [ISSOJ,, “[@ 9 UlOOYsIeg WOT) (“SHR xX) “wnovsdisy JO 9}UIS09} ‘S9ATVYIAI URSTIOUTY OM S}I JO UO JOU PUY UIOD seM UIOD JO JOysaoUe dy? IVT MOYS Ady] pur ‘soIyslIaIIvIvYD May} ul [eorUapt A][eNIUIIA ore suress uayjod omy asay} ‘sedv stay Ul eUAaJayIp sivad QEQ‘QR etWoOs jo atids UT ‘uONPoyUSeU sUeS aI? Iv (tH0I]0q) UIOD UIapOUT Il 5 } II | roa EEP ¢ 000 08 yO eh ea | | P JO ulvis usyjod ev yqM paieduros AqI- Ostxayy FO a11s Juasoid 24} MO]Eq 199} YOZ UPYI s10tW Woy (doz) u109 Jo uaTjod [ISsOy :3J9] ‘[—¢-] saunorg <=] apt ay iit) «cee 4 oe &) ) <9 20 The Need To Classify ' By Rocer L. BATTEN Department of Geology The University of Wisconsin [With 1 plate] One of mankind’s earliest intellectual endeavors was the attempt to gather together the seemingly overwhelming variety presented by nature into an orderly pattern. ‘The desire to classify—to impose order on chaos and then to form patterns out of this order on which to base ideas and conclusions—remains one of our strongest urges. This same desire is the basic stuff of science. The classification of living forms is a complex endeavor. It is also a constantly changing one. Even to this day, as new organisms are discovered, we are often faced with the need to revise past systems of classification—and we are never quite satisfied with the latest system. How do these classifications of life serve us? One of their most exciting uses is in unraveling the extremely tangled record of life’s evolution during the 500 million years for which we have records of organisms. In biology, the description of newly discovered organisms is not so common today as it was 50 years ago. In paleontology—the study of the remains of formerly living organisms—however, the job is far from complete. This is because it is not nearly so easy to obtain fossils as it is to collect living specimens: even after fossils are found in rock, it requires much painstaking preparation just to see the characters by which they can be classified. Almost daily in the field of paleontology, newly discovered fossil forms are being analyzed and described. It is easy to see that such discoveries require almost continuous change in our systems of classification. For it follows that, as more information accumulates, the “new” forms must be incorporated in the classification and our concepts of the relative positions and inter- relations between various groups of organisms must also change. For formal classification is, in essence, a rather artificial structure—a tool 1Reprinted by permission from Natural History, 67, No. 3, March 1958. 509 1959 ’ INSTITUTION ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN ‘dno13 auo ul paSuojaq spodomsed padvys-deo jv ey) peaatjeq ssoyisse]o Aye ‘eioydooe|ddjog sse[> ay} Jo st (puNoIsa10f Jo] Jomo) UOUYS MOIIeU “SUC 9U,T, ‘epodosjses) sse[> ay} Jo Slaquisw ‘sjaduil] ,ens,, Sulsul[o-yI01 ‘spijeqed are sysnjour pedeys-des aay oy, “(punosso10y) sysn]jour oulieur fo dnoi3 sty 10j Zuijqes [einjeu ve saplaoid aloysvas AYIOY—] TANI NEED TO CLASSIFY—BATTEN 511 used to express current ideas regarding the relationship of organisms one with another. From the first, mankind classified the things he observed by a method which declared that “like things belong together.” This method was implicit in the first classification of living things and remains the chief method of classifying today. But it is a method that must be used with discretion for—as we shall see—one can very easily classify objects on the basis of their superficial resemblances, while overlooking important basic characteristics which may be some- what less obvious. As an example, we might say, “I will construct a category for animals that fly.” Such a single category would include many flying animals that were more or less related. But birds and bats would occupy the same category, because both possess flying appendages. Upon closer examination, however, we would note that the wings of a bird and a bat are actually quite different. Further examination of the other organs of birds and bats would show that, while these two animals are superficially alike, in detail they are not at all closely related. If we were sensible, we would change our classification to recognize these differences. Refinements of a classification—although considerably more subtle than in this example—are a daily and important part of work today that aims at achieving a framework which reflects the relative degree of relationship both between contemporary organisms and between the animal forms of the evolutionary past. Let me now relate a case that demonstrates how our knowledge has increased over the years and show some of the effects that this increased knowledge has had on classification. We will take the phylum Mollusca, and, within this phylum, chiefly the snails (which in classification are called the class Gastropoda). In addition to the snails, other classes belonging to this same phylum include: Phylum MOLLUSCA : Class PoLyPLAcoPHoRA (chitons) Class PELECYPODA (clams) Class CEPHALOPODA (octopus—chambered nautilus) Class ScapHopopa (tusk shells) We know that among the myriad of snails that make up the class Gastropoda (some 50,000 species are known to exist) there are sev- eral groups, collectively known as the “limpets,” which are peculiarly adapted to a rocky environment where surf or swift currents present rather rigorous conditions for life. These limpets have cap-shaped shells, and possess powerful muscles that enable them to adhere to rocks, even under the stress of pounding surf (figs. 2 and 3). 512 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Figure 2.—Living limpet, A4cmaea, is shown attached to a rock, its shell raised somewhat higher above the fleshy foot than normal. Limpet’s front faces to the left. Ficure 3.—Bilateral symmetry of chiton (left) with mouth and anus at opposite ends, contrasts with curled, one-sided patellid and snail (right) where same organs lie in close proximity. NEED TO CLASSIFY—BATTEN 513 As we know today, there are several families of gastropods having representatives adapted to life in such rough and rocky environ- ments (fig. 6). All of them possess shells that are superficially quite similar, since they share a common habitat. Early zoological classi- fiers, looking at these cap-shaped shells, assumed that these different gastropods were members of the same group. The paleontologists, too, when they began to turn up such shells in the fossil record, classified all the cap-shaped shells as members of the limpet group. The classifica- tion, as formed by them, showed one group of “limpets” from very early geologic time to recent times. Such a classification would look like the illustration shown in figure 4. Meanwhile, the biologists—who were studying living lmpets— soon recognized that, in addition to the “true” ones (which they called patellids), there actually were several other more or less distantly related families of gastropods, members of which resembled true limpets. This discovery was possible because the biologists studied the living tissue and organs. Unfortunately, the paleontologists had only the shells available, and were unable to study the differences in the organs between the various cap-shaped forms. For many years, in conse- quence, little change occurred in classification of the extinct forms. Before we go further, we must learn something more about the gastropods. Most organisms, we know, possess some sort of sym- metry in their bodily arrangement. The commonest type of symmetry is a bilateral arrangement, in which one side of the organism is a mirror image of the other, and the organism’s head and tail le at opposite ends of the body. Most gastropods are asymmetrical, having lost one “side” sometime in the course of their evolution. When we look at a snail, we see that the soft parts of its body are contained in a shell which, although often coiled, is usually a long, narrow cone, open at one end (see fig. 3). An examination of rock-clinging patellids—the true limpets—shows that, while they have cap-shaped rather than long, narrow shells, here, too, only one “side” of the organism is present and anus and mouth are in close proximity. In other words, all the limpets are typical, coiled asymmetrical gastropods (see fig. 5). We have already been introduced to another class in the order of mollusks—the polyplacophorans, or chitons. These chitons share a rock-clinging environment with the limpets, but they are a much more primitive form of mollusk. Anus and mouth are at opposite ends of the chiton’s body and the body itself is bilaterally symmetrical. The chitons’ shells are different from those of the patellids, having eight separate plates instead of a single shell (see fig. 9). It was thus obvious—even to the early classifiers—that, while these two 1959 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 514 ‘aleiedas a1JoM SUO}IYD “SouT a1Z0Jood Ajiva 0} dulpusixe sjaduil] Jo oul] ajZuls ve ur ‘sursoydoov|douour {Isso} oy} Surpnpout ‘sysnqjour padeys-deo |v ind siayissejo A}ley—yF aunorg vyaodoOulsvd Sssv19 102031Vd sunsoydornjdouow yaodoulsv9 VWuOHdOIV1IdA1Od 4aguoO rE fep. fe) spodoyjsos) LK 2) JIOZ0SIW /ssaduiy,, suo}! JIOZONI) NEED TO CLASSIFY—BATTEN 515 Figure 5.—Growth of rock-clinger, from early whorl to final cap-shaped form, is seen here with Fissurella, the keyhole limpet, another large limpet group belonging to the super- family Fissurellacea of the Archeogastropoda. First three growth stages are shown greatly magnified. organisms shared a similar environment, they were vastly different from each other. What was not so apparent, however, was that some of the gastropod groups that possessed cap-shaped shells were very different from other gastropod groups that also possessed such shells. A few years ago, paleontologists attempted to reclassify some cap- shaped fossil shells that dated back to the early Paleozoic. With no soft parts to examine directly, they critically studied these shells for characteristics that could be related to the absent tissue. In the study of living patellids, it had been noted that a continuous “muscle scar” ran around the inside of their shells, marking the attachment area for the limpets’ powerful muscles. The paleontologists found that many of the fossil shells exhibited such a continuous “muscle sear.” Therefore, they felt safe in assuming that the missing soft parts had been similar to those found in living patellids. However, the paleontologists also discovered that other cap-shaped shells possessed, instead, two to eight pairs of distinct “muscle scars.” Two things were curious about these ancient muscle scars: first, some were eight in number and, second, they were arranged around the shell in bilaterally symmetrical pairs. The paleontologists could only speculate that these shells were, in fact, so primitive that the 516 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 S BIT Weg Ficure 6.—Only “true” limpet among these rock-clinging gastropods is the patellid at bottom, left. The others, quite similar in form, are, clockwise, Crucibulum, belonging to another order (Caenogastropoda), Haliotis, belonging to the superfamily Pleuro- tomariacea of the Archeogastropoda, and Diodora, another fissurellid. organisms had not yet lost one of their “sides.” They concluded that these primitive forms, unlike most gastropods, had possessed bilat- erally symmetrical soft parts (fig. 10). If this conclusion was true, then the paleontologists had discovered the probable ancestral group from which Jater gastropods were de- rived. Indeed, it seemed possible that not only were these forms (which are called monoplacophorans) the basal stock for the gastro- pods, but for the eight-plated chitons as well. Here, then, was some evidence with which to construct a new classification—one that had brought together two groups previously widely separated: the class Polyplacophora and the class Gastropoda. Such a classification is illustrated in figure 7. This new interpretation made it possible, for the first time, to relate two diverse groups as well as to understand something of the evolution of these groups. The never-ending labor of classification, whether it is the work of biologists or paleontologists or others, receives contributions from all. Shortly after the Smithsonian paleontologists’ announcement ? of this particular revised classification, a serologist—studying blood types in the mollusks—proved that the gastropods and chitons could not 2 Knight, J. Brookes, Primitive fossil gastropods and their bearing on gastropod classifi- eation. Smithsonian Mise. Coll., vol. 117, No. 138, October 29, 1952. lta “suO}Yd dy} Oj Osye Inq spodosses [[e JO¥ ATUO Jou YdO1S [eI soouv se ie S ° c 10 ~—«:1971¥] SUOISIAUa JUOWIAZURIIe MONT “S1B9S 9[ISNUI uvioydoorjdouour [Issof Jo JueuIaZuviie ul AnauuAs [esaieyiq Jo A13A0osIp Sisisojojuoajed oy puv siesul[a-Yoo1 ay2 FO Isa1 ay1 pue syodury ,,anii,, UsIMIEq S2UdIOYIP FO sisdjeue ,S1SIZO[OIq dy} YIOG SajvJodJOUI UOILdYIsse[D posiAcy—'/ AUNTY vaodOulsvd ssv1p Z > | = rr 2 as ay1 se parejas Ajasoj> Os aq Jou pj[nos spodonses pue suowys yi peaoid Apnis edA}-poojq ysnjoP~y—'g aunorg 1959 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 518 vaodoOulsv5 ssv15b 3102031Vd supsoydo>nj;douow spodoysps J9UIO J10Z0S3W spodo.jsos 24![-4odu1 Spi}ja4D suo}! 9) ats Pijaiod 4 J10Z0N3) NEED TO CLASSIFY—BATTEN 519 Bch yy ary Se \ 44 Ficure 9.—Top view of chiton shows eight separate plates of its shell. be so closely related as the revised classification proposed. It was necessary, therefore, to revise the classification further, so that the monoplacophorans were placed in with the chitons, while the gastro- pods were viewed as a branching-off from the chiton stock. Again, a major change in classification had been made, in order to fit newly discovered facts (fig. 8). Ficure 10.—Multiple muscle scars of fossil monoplacophorans (left) are contrasted here with the continuous, ringlike muscle scar of a fossil patellid. With this clue to bilateral symmetry, the paleontologists reconstructed a hypothetical set of symmetrical body organs for the monoplacophorans (right) in which anus and mouth lie at opposite ends of the animal. 1959 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 520 ‘souljdiosip AueW JO SSUIPUY dy} SPUIqWIOD ‘s}D¥j MOU JO YYSI] 9Y4} UI aduRYD 0} yalqns ‘sauo JaljIes dy} 9yI] ‘UOISI9A MOU dy} 3eY2 INO szulod JOY Ne ayy Ing AJaAOOsIp DuYrdoany Wor ATIIeWIId suIays UOISIADI SIU, “eIOYdooejd -OUOJ] Sse[D 242 ‘A10Za}v9 Mau v soysi[qeyse ‘9/g] souls sysnjour ayy JO UoIstAaI JofeUT ysIy 9YI soyeIOdIOSUI YDIYM ‘UOIWwOYISsE]D soe J— |] TANI VYOHdOIVIdATOd ssv1)D vgodOulsvd ssv1z> 310Z2031Vd spodo.jsps J9UICN J10Z0S3W 2 ! | = ue spodoijsn5 | ) fh \\ ayi-4oduiy SP1]]9}0g purjidoay SUOHYD | FET @) \ 5) )/0Z0N3) NEED TO CLASSIFY—BATTEN SrA Thus, up to 1956, stood the classification of the primitive forms of gastropods—a far cry from the first classification that had viewed all the limpets as members of one family. Now, looking at the fossil record, we can make another observa- tion. The primitive monoplacophorans were not a successful group of animals: they apparently became extinct about 280 million years ago—probably giving way to the more advanced limpets, which could more successfully adapt to the environment of that time. But about 8 years ago, during the expedition of the Danish vessel Galathea, sev- eral tiny cap-shaped shells were brought to the surface by the deep-sea dredging operations. The natural first impression was that they were limpets, because no other group of cap-shaped shells were known to be extant. Upon careful examination in the laboratory, however, some sharp differences were noted between these forms and the usual gastropods adapted for rock-clinging environment. This new form, duly described and named Neopilina galathaea, was presented to the astounded scientific world early in 1957. Others have been found since then. For here was a living monoplacophoran, previously thought to be extinct for 280 million years! (See fig. 12 and pl. 1.) MNeopilina, with its eight distinct muscles and bilateral symmetry—mouth and anus at opposite ends of its body—is the very organism hypothetically constructed by the paleontologists 5 years before. Many of the characters of Neopilina predicted by the paleontologists were found: several other characters that could not have been pre- dicted were also present. These additional characteristics are bring- ing even further changes in classification. One major discovery is the presence in Veopilina of what appears to be body-cavity segmentation, and a separate gill for each of the paired muscles. Segmentation of the body cavity is considered by zoologists to be a primitive char- acteristic. Such segmentation is shared by several very different phyla, including the worms and the arthropods (that great group which includes such diverse forms as lobsters, spiders, and insects). One suspects that there will be a strong temptation to revise classi- fication in a manner which will relate some of these diverse forms more closely than is the case at present. In our own task of unraveling the complex relationships between various primitive mollusks, the discovery of Veopzlina has sent the paleontologists back to further study of their collections. Perhaps some minor feature, overlooked before, will now have great signif- icance. Already some of the rather vague muscle scars of fossils that had been placed in other gastropod families indicate that these belong, instead, among the monoplacophorans. The search is far from completed; it will take several years for all of us to understand and reevaluate our data. So far, we know much more about how the gastropods and other mollusks came to be and, 522 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 yes, we have made still another change in the classification! We know now that the monoplacophorans are no¢ gastropods and—even more important—are not chitons, either. How are we to represent this in our classification? We will erect a brand new class, the class Mono- placophora, the first new class to be erected since 1876, when the chitons were separated from the gastropods. The new classification will then look like the illustration shown on figure 11. Thus, the work of a variety of scientists—a discovery off the coast of Costa Rica, the study of blood types, and the examination of ob- secure fossils—have wrought major changes in the classification, and by so doing have moved man toward a better understanding of the great stream of life. Ficure 12.—The astonishing recovery of a living monoplacophoran by the Galathea Ex- pedition in 1951 (bottom view above) gave confirmation to the paleontologists’ hypothet- ical reconstruction. PLATE 1 Smithsonian Report, 1959—Batten ‘0961 pur ZS6T Ul poivodde ‘sivoA UOI[[IW (QZ IO} yOUIIXe U99q DALY SUISNOD [Isso} asoyM ‘Ysn]four Mou oy Jo Apnys paivjaq ‘uNnIg uOoUY “‘Japra] s,uOtpodxe oy} WoIy 90D d1OY SMATA UWH0}}0qG pur (aJ2]) doy, ‘uontpedxy voyre[es oy} Sulinp ‘apayjyjv3 vurpidoany pourysl1yd sem “[C6T Ul BOY BISOD Ho sourd Aq punoj ‘uvioydoovjdouow 3urAry Current Advances and Concepts in Virology * [With 4 plates] THESE VERY WEE ANIMALS “THE FOURTH sorT of little animals, which drifted among the three sorts aforesaid, were incredibly small; nay, so small, in my sight, that I judged that even if 100 of these very wee animals lay stretched out one against another, they could not reach to the length of a grain of coarse sand. ...” This quotation is attributed to Anton van Leeu- wenhoek, a Dutch linen draper, who was the father of microscopy and probably the first to see bacteria (1).? Many years later, attempts were made to remove these very wee animals. Cotton plugs and porous unburnt clay were used, and, in 1877, Pasteur employed plaster of paris to separate anthrax bacilli from their containing fluids. In 1891, Nordtmeyer introduced a new filter medium made of com- pressed infusorial earth known as Kieselguhr. The filtering capabil- ities of this substance were noticed because the ground water in the Kieselouhr mine in Unterluss (Hannover) was of a clear blue color. The filter of Kieseleuhr, which is still used today, was called “Berke- feld,” after the owner of the mine. These filters are capable of hold- ing back the smallest bacteria, and fluids which have passed through them are bacteriologically sterile. Yet, infections may be produced by such sterile fluids because the causative agents—viruses—have filter-passing ability as a typical characteristic. Actually, the first scientific demonstration of the existence of a virus disease must be accredited to Ivanovski, a Russian botanist, who, in 1892, was investigating a disease of the tobacco plant known as tobacco mosaic. This worker extracted some of the sap from a dis- eased plant and passed it through a fine filter made of unglazed porce- lain. He then discovered that the filtrate, although sparkling clear 1 Prepared by members of the medical staff, Lilly Research Laboratories. Reprinted by permission from Physician’s Bulletin, vol. 24, No. 38, Apr. 1, 1959, published by Eli Lilly & Co., S. O. Waife, M.D., editor. 2 Numbers in parentheses indicate references at end of text. 523 524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 and free of all bacteria, had the power of producing the disease when rubbed on the leaves of healthy tobacco plants. Despite the evidence of this experiment, Ivanovski himself, as well as the scientists of his day, believed that the disease was caused by bacteria. Seven years later, this phenomenon was rediscovered by Beijerinck, who extended these observations and recognized that a new type of agent had been discovered. He gave it the appropriate name con- tagium vivum fluidum—a living contagious fluid. Although the discovery of the existence of viruses is of recent date, virus diseases have played a long historic role in the life of man. Smallpox existed in China as early as 1700 B.C., and yellow fever was recognized as early as the 17th century. In fact, the establishment of the Haitian Republic was largely due to yellow fever, since most of the French troops sent to invade the island died of the disease there. Of course, long before the microbiologic era in medicine, a method of preventing one infectious (virus) disease had been devised and its use thoroughly established; namely, vaccination against smallpox (Jenner). Yet it is curious that, in spite of its ancient lineage, virol- ogy has only recently burst forth into full bloom as a vigorous, if not explosive, branch of medical science. The following pages present a few of the highlights of current ad- vances and concepts in virology. WHAT IS A VIRUS? The submicroscopic particle known as a virus stands in the limbo between “living things” and chemical compounds. No longer does one ask, “Is a virus a plant or an animal?” Rather, one asks, “Isn’t it a complex chemical (a nucleoprotein) with both the actual and po- tential properties of life itself?” We now know that a virus consists grossly of a protein shell around nucleic acid material. It may be, however, that this description is too simplified. At any rate, the shell is made up of many small, sym- metrically arranged protein molecules. The protein coat may be, like most proteins, antigenic. Antibodies produced against this antigen can “neutralize” the virus. Thus, antiserum would seem to be useful. However, it can act only on virus in serum before it enters a cell; and, since this is a transient phase in the life cycle of these tiny particles, little clinical use can be made of antiserums (2). Inside the protein coat is nucleic acid material which in many viruses consists of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Other viruses, includ- ing those which attack bacteria (bacteriophage), contain deoxyri- bonucleic acid (DNA). In animal tissue, DNA is largely nuclear and RNA cytoplasmic in location. Nucleic acids are complex chemical molecules. They consist of a double spiral of long chains of sugar-phosphate-purine (or pyrimi- VIROLOGY—LILLY RESEARCH LABORATORIES 525 dine) groups; one such unit is called a nucleotide. RNA differs from DNA in the sugar moiety. The complexity of nucleic acids can be judged from the fact that thymus DNA has a molecular weight on the order of 4,000,000 and contains about 10,000 nucleotides. Infectivity and the capacity to damage or destroy cells are said to be functions of the nucleic-acid content. Viruses vary considerably in size and, to some extent, in shape. The largest measure about 300 millimicrons (mp) in diameter, the smaller about one-tenth of this or less. (In comparison, a staphylococcus has a diameter of about 1,000 my.) Their configuration, as determined from advanced technics, may be classified roughly into spheres, rods, and ellipsoids (pl. 1). CLASSIFICATION No satisfactory classification comparable to bacterial groupings has been devised for viruses. These individualistic creatures do not seem to fall into a logical pattern. They may be grouped according to their primary site of action, antigenic relationship, mode of transmission, pathologic tissue reactions, immunologic properties, etc. Because we know a lot more about the diseases than about the organisms, the simple “clinical” classification provided in table 1 may be useful. TABLB 1.—Clinical grouping of selected virus diseases Dermatotropic: Arthropod-borne: Smallpox Yellow fever Chickenpox Dengue Herpes zoster Encephalitides Measles Psittacosis—Lymphogranuloma Group: Herpes simplex Ue Se y Psittacosis Exanthem subitum i zs Lymphogranuloma venereum Respiratory—Parotid: Trachoma Influenza : : ratty: Inclusion conjunctivitis Mumps Adenovirus infection Miscellaneous: “Common cold” Coxsackie virus infection Neurotropic : ECHO virus infection Poliomyelitis Verrucae Rabies Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis Lymphocytic choriomeningitis Foot-and-mouth disease Hepatic: Salivary gland virus infection Infectious hepatitis Serum hepatitis MULTIPLICATION OF VIRUSES It may come as a surprise to know that invasion by and multiplica- tion of viruses are known in considerable detail. Some description of these processes is essential for a fundamental appreciation of the problems at the bedside. Bacterial viruses.—Bacteriophage (phage, for short) has a spe- cialized head and tail structure. Phage attaches itself to the surface 526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 of the bacterium (pl. 2, fig. 1) by means of its “tail.” The exterior coat may be likened to a disposable microsyringe, the function of which is to inject phage DNA into the bacterial cell (3). There fol- lows a short period during which the virus cannot be detected by means currently at our disposal. Inside the cell, the virus DNA begins to make replicas of itself, using as raw materials the nucleic acids of the bacterial host and fresh substances absorbed by the bacteria from the surrounding media. The DNA also induces the synthesis of new protein in the cell, which in turn combines with the new DNA to form many new virus particles. Multiplication continues until the cell wall bursts and virus particles are released. (Notice a resemblance to inva- sion of red blood cells by malaria parasites.) Animal-cell viruses —The common viruses that infect man have no specialized tail-like mechanisms. However, they do attach to the sur- face of tissue cells, and there results a spreading disturbance along the surface which can be likened to a mucinolytic action (3). Some viruses, notably influenza, may be taken into the cell by an active process of ingestion by the cells themselves (pinocytosis). In con- trast to phage, it is difficult to separate the phase of replication from that of maturation and release. This may be so because animal cells have much less rigid walls than do bacteria, and “new virus seems able to escape from the cells almost as soon as it is formed. In the case of influenza, Western equine encephalomyelitis, and poliomyelitis, there is a period after the infecting virus has penetrated the cells during which no infectivity is recoverable, followed by a period dur- ing which new virus is released from the cells in an exponential manner” (3). Cellular infection by an animal virus may cause one or a number of centers to be set up for the manufacture of new virus particles, each of which can escape from the cell almost as soon as it is formed (pl. 2, fig. 2). Damage to the cell, however, is not correlated with the amount of new virus produced. Lwoff et al. (4) studied the release of polio virus from single infected cells and found that once new virus was formed, it leaked rapidly from the infected cell. Cell death occurred when virus pro- duction ceased. Thus, escape of virus particles from infected cells causes only trivial damage to the cell surface. GENES According to the modern view of biology, almost all metabolic processes are catalyzed by enzymes, and all enzymes are protein mole- cules. The synthesis of enzymes is controlled by genes, and probably one gene controls the synthesis of one enzyme. A gene, therefore, must be able not only to duplicate itself as part of normal cell repro- PLATE 1 Smithsonian Report, 1959—Lilly Research Laboratories IegjonuesqUI Ue poUlsO; sey YOY snsta xafdurts sodsapy “OD ©) *]eqsAI9 . ‘ SnIIA BZUONYUT “SMITA BUIDDRA JO apdIqIed a[sulg ‘VY ‘(00006 X) Sesnata jo sadveys snote A V Smithsonian Report, 1959—Lilly Research Laboratories PLATE 2 1. Schematic representation of invasion by and multiplication of bacteriophage. In a short period of time bacterial lysis occurs. The figure represents T-coliphage attacking Escher1- chia coli. 2. Schematic representation of virus invasion and multiplication in animal tissue cell. ‘There is no “‘tail,” and cell lysis does not characteristically occur. PLATE 3 Smithsonian Report, 1959—Lilly Research Laboratories *A[snosuriNuils pessoid (14311) ajyeojdnp oy} Jo Sulputmes puv ‘uolevordas ‘(x1ep) xo]dnp juoied aya jo 94} soos STU} uy SuUIpUIMU/) *soplosjonu jo suleyo quasoidar S][t09 [Boley ‘VNd fo uoleordal-]jas 9y4 jo yda0u0) ou) nG *So[Noa[Oul ole SoSseqlAxOop Ivesns uc -ussoljiu 9y} Juasoidar GI BO-2. AY Sole ydsoyd eyy nbs dTapDNUOqIIAXOap) VNC 8 jo quouls raiogale) 2 J e e) S =) I Y9UUOD out o1P IID 9Y} Ssase SNOIIBA FUL ‘o]n 9S JUC ) fo YoJIYsS 91 So q 991° JUL fo) o ulUle vues SUR IIY ouy [4 JUOD (ploe vd I Smithsonian Report, 1959—Lilly Research Laboratories PLATE 4 a 1. Normal liver. There is a flame-red 2. Normal salivary gland. Here the cyto- fluorescence of cytoplasmic RNA. The plasmic RNA is situated at the base of nuclei, containing DNA, have a greenish- the epithelial cells. Five tissue mast yellow color. (XX 225.) cells showing mahogany-red fluorescent granules are present. (X 225.) 3. Calf-kidney tissue culture infected 18 4. Hela cells infected 2 days previously hours previously with influenza A (W.S. with adenovirus, type 5. ‘This is a late strain). Many of the nuclei show stage of infection, and intensely fluores- diffuse RNA fluorescence of varying cing condensed masses of DNA-contain- intensity. The pattern of cytoplasmic ing material occupy the center of some RNA fluorescence is altered in many of nuclei. An apparently normal nucleus the cells. (XX 225.) is in the center of the field. (X 325.) VIROLOGY—LILLY RESEARCH LABORATORIES 527 duction but also to determine the specificity of a protein molecule, i.e., the enzyme. STRUCTURE OF GENETIC MATERIAL What is transmitted in us from one generation to the next is not a characteristic eye pigment or blood type. Rather, it is a set of factors in chromosomes which are able to influence the activities of cells so that certain substances responsible for eye pigment or blood type are produced. Current research indicates that chromosomes are largely composed of DNA,? which suggests that this substance is a major constituent of genes. In fact, we can say that DNA, the basic stuff of all cell nuclei, is the sole carrier of genetic information in all organisms (except in small viruses, where RNA appears instead). The word “information” as used here means that genetic material tells the repli- cating cell what its characteristics are to be. This information is in a chemical “code” in the structural form of the molecule. In spite of the complexity of its structure, the only variables in DNA are the purine, or pyrimidine, bases (adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine), which are constant in any particular species. It appears that they are probably arranged in a definite sequence—which has been called the genetic code. Each time a cell divides, an exact copy of genetic information must be made in order to insure continuity. Therefore, much interest is shown in structural features. DNA would seem to be a double helix with the bases in each chain in a complementary sequence (pl. 3, fig.1). The two chains separate and make a duplicate of themselves, each offspring being an exact copy (pl. 3, fig. 2) 4 RNA, not DNA, controls protein synthesis in the cell and may carry genetic information from nucleus to cytoplasm (5). Its structure is not completely understood. Most protein is probably made in the cytoplasm, where the point of polymerization seems to have been traced to small spherical particles known as microsomes. These particles resemble spherical viruses in shape and composition. “This suggests that a virus in- fection may be equivalent to the injection of an apparatus for the manufacture of the wrong protein” (6). The matter of genetic mutations, important in virology (such as the development of new virulent strains of influenza virus) as well as in clinical medicine, may also be explained in simple terms as the formation of an abnormal protein. *Sperm with half the chromosomes of a normal cell has about half the amount of DNA. “DNA can be extracted and transferred to another strain of bacteria and thus produces genetic transformation. When this transfer is made through infection by phage, it is known as transduction. The recent award of the Nobel Prize in Medicine went to Drs. Lederberg, Beadle, and Tatum for discoveries along these lines. 536608—60——35 528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 There is an important similarity between the structure of a protein and that of a nucleic acid. Both have a specific linear sequence of different units on a long chain,> and both have a helical structure. Nucleic acids contain mainly 4 different kinds of bases; proteins contain mainly 20 different kinds of amino acids. The sequence of these units (adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine) determines the specificity of the nucleic acids, just as the particular sequence of let- ters specifies a word. In addition, it has been assumed by some that the sequence of the bases in the DNA-RNA chain determines the amino acids along the protein chain. Thus far the reader may not see the tremendous significance of these “basic science” observations. However, consider sickle-cell anemia. This disease is due to an abnormal hemoglobin which harmfully affects the properties of the red cell. Very recently, Ingram (7) dis- covered that the abnormality consists only in the replacement of one glutamic acid residue by a valine—one of about 300 such amino-acid molecules in one of two identical halves of the hemoglobin molecule. This seemingly minor chemical change suggests a single mutation in the hemoglobin gene. How much more lies just ahead in what is molecular biology today and medicine tomorrow ? VIRUSES AND CANCER That viruses and cancer may be related is an old observation. Bor- rel suggested this in 1903 (8), and Rous (9) proved it a few years later. Viruses are now known to be found in such diverse neoplasia as human warts, fowl leukemia, rabbit papilloma, and milk-trans- mitted mammary cancer of mice (10). Another interesting observation is the transformation of normal cells in tissue culture to tumor cells after introduction of sarcoma virus (11). Many temporarily effective anticancer agents have been shown to affect nucleotide metabolism, and it appears that the rates of DNA synthesis and mitotic activity are parallel (12). Indeed, Cohen and Barner (13) have shown that cells (including bacteria) can be killed when DNA synthesis is blocked, even though RNA and protein metabolism may be unaltered. Because relatively pure nucleic acid preparations which possess virus activity have been obtained, Stanley suggested (14) that “it would now appear wise to revise the generally accepted definition of a virus to include nucleic acids and perhaps also to include repli- cating structures which do not evidence infectivity in the usual sense, 5 The 1958 Nobel Prize for Chemistry was awarded to Frederick Sanger, of Cambridge, England, for working out the amino-acid sequence of insulin. VIROLOGY—LILLY RESEARCH LABORATORIES 529 because normally they are duplicated only once or a minimal number of times during each cell division and may never leave the cell during many generations. Such a viral nucleic acid might temporarily ap- pear to be a part of, or associated with, the genetic apparatus of the cell, but be subject to chemical or physical stimulation or shock which could cause it to mature, increase greatly its rate of replication, per- haps mutate, but in any case to separate and act as an independent functional unit.” DIAGNOSIS At one time a diagnosis of virus disease was made by “exclusion” (i.e., no bacteria as cause), but it is now possible to apply a new method—tissue culture. This technic has been a major stimulus to the recent growth of virology. A tiny piece of living tissue is placed in a bottle or tube together with a nutrient medium and antibiotics. It is the advent of antibi- otics, which inhibit the growth of contaminating bacteria without affecting tissue cells, that has permitted the rapid growth of this technic in many laboratories. Tissue cells are now grown in test tubes, either newly obtained from tissues or from long-maintained strains. A particular virus will grow better in some types of cells than in others; for example, adenoviruses are more readily isolated in HeLa cells (originally obtained from a case of human cervical carcinoma) than in cells from a monkey’s kidney. This is akin to the phenomena of specific differential media used commonly in bacteriology. In addition, the changes produced by different viruses vary. For instance, poliomyelitis virus invades individual cells widely; measles produces more localized lesions, and large masses may result from the apparent fusion of cells. Indeed, a plaquelike area of destruction can be obtained by a technic recently described (15). This, too, aids in diagnosis, Another technic of identification makes use of tissue culture. If serum containing antibodies against a specific virus is added to a tissue-culture broth, growth of the virus is neutralized. By use of this tissue-culture virus-neutralization test, a serum can be tested for its antibody content; and, through the use of known serum, un- known viruses may be identified. A striking and colorful advance in this field has resulted from the technic of labeling antibodies with a fluorescing substance which can be seen under the fluorescence microscope. This method permits the localization of antibodies (and hence antigens) in tissues. The work of Coons and Kaplan (16) has led to methods which enable investigators to localize antigens (e.g., virus material) to the indi- vidual cells. In fact, one can determine whether virus is in the nucleus or cytoplasm or both. By virtue of the specificity of the antigen- 5380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 antibody reaction, the technic has been extended to study sites of antibody formation. In simple terms, the tissue under study is covered by antibody-con- taining material, e.g., appropriate serum. Previously, the antibody was treated with a fluorescent dye. After a time the antibody is washed away. Since antigen will bind the specific antibody, fluores- cent material will remain fixed only at those locations where antigen is present. Many factors, such as polymerization and pH, affect the reaction and may alter the appearance under the fluorescence micro- scope. This method has been used by several workers for the demonstration of protein antigens, bacterial polysaccharides, viruses, rickettsiae, and plasma protein in tissues and cells. Plate 4, figures 14, demonstrate a technic for studying the distri- bution of nucleic acids in normal and virus-infected cells and have been supplied by Dr. Janet S. F. Niven and Dr. J. A. Armstrong, of the National Institute for Medical Research, London (17). The material, either fixed 3p sections or tissue-culture cells, is immersed in acid buffer (pH 2.7) and transferred to a 1: 2,000 solution of acridine orange in the same buffer for half an hour. After it is washed in buffer, the specimen is mounted, sealed to prevent drying, and ex- amined under the fluorescence microscope utilizing the blue-violet region of the spectrum. Structures containing DNA emit a bright greenish-yellow fluorescence, whereas RN A-containing material gives a flame-red color. FACTORS INFLUENCING VIRUS ACTIVITY We know that man has latent in various tissues throughout his body many viruses which were unknown to us a few years ago, but we do not know what many of these are doing there (18). We know that viruses can persist in their host for generations in either an infectious or a noninfectious form. They can mutate to form new strains and cause different disease symptoms. Viruses may have different effects, depending on the age, genetics, and state of nutrition and hormonal balance of the host (14). The conversion of a virus from a latent to an active state may be effected by seasonal factors. For instance, there is a tendency for polio to occur in the summertime or for sun and wind, somehow re- lated to the seasons, to influence the emergence of herpetic lesions. There are also hormonal factors, such as those associated with preg- nancy, that influence whether or not polio will result in a paralysis. Sometimes a bacterial infection can influence the conversion of latent virus to active virus (for example, the appearance of herpes simplex accompanying meningococcus meningitis or pneumococcus VIROLOGY—LILLY RESEARCH LABORATORIES 531 pneumonia). Evidence has also been uncovered which suggests that a bacterial infection of the lung and possibly the upper part of the respiratory tract may cause the influenza virus, present in the latent state, to emerge in an active form. This is the reverse of what is usually believed to occur, namely, that influenza virus infections pre- cipitate bacterial infections. It is possible that both aspects may occur (19). RECOVERY FROM VIRUS DISEASE During the acute phase when lesions and infected tissues are present, the concentration of virus particles is constant and often at a high level. In most virus diseases, recovery is the rule, although unfortu- nate sequelae may persist after some. Kinetic studies have shown that a decline in virus concentration precedes a resolution of the lesions. The mechanisms of recovery are essentially unknown and have been rarely studied. This is because laboratories tend to use fatal infec- tions for their models. The development of circulating antibodies has little, if any, part in recovery. Efforts to foster recovery by use of immune serum that contains antibodies have been unsuccessful. This is true even though in some instances there is a correlation between the appearance of antibodies and signs of recovery. At least there is no evidence of a causal relationship between these two phenomena. Patients with agamma-globulinemia, who are unable to produce antibodies against an infecting agent, appear to recover from some virus diseases as readily and as promptly as do normal persons (20). “Important as specific antibodies are in conferring immunity against certain virus cliseases as well as in preventing migration [of virus] through the blood to uninfected tissues, there is no adequate evidence that they can alter the course of an established virus disease” (20). We have seen that viruses are basic particles of living matter. They bear a resemblance to “genes” and produce their ill effects by altering cellular activities. How are these intracellular interferences reflected in human disease ? REFERENCES 1. Smiru, K. M. The virus, life’s enemy. New York, 1940. 2. Dugos, R. J. Infection into disease. Prospectives in Biol. and Med., vol. 1, summer 1958. 3. SANDERS, F. K. The multiplication of animal viruses. In Ciba Foundation Symposium on the Nature of Viruses, ed. G. E. W. Wolstenholme and E. C. P. Millar. Boston, 1957. 4. Lworr, A.; DuLpecco, R.; Voet, M.; and Lworr, M. Kinetics of the re- lease of poliomyelitis virus from single cells. Virology, vol. 1, 1955. 5. CHANTRENNE, H. Newer developments in relation to protein biosynthesis. Ann. Rey. Biochem., vol. 27, 1958. 6. Perutz, M. F. Some recent advances in molecular biology. Endeavour, vol. 17, October, 1958. 002 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Ce 13. 14. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. IncrRAM, V. M. Gene mutations in human haemoglobin: The chemical dif- ference between normal and sickle cell haemoglobin. Nature (London), vol, 180, 1957. . Borret, A. Epithélioses infectieuses et epithéliomas. Ann. Inst. Pasteur, vol. 17, 1908. . Rous, P. Transmission of a malignant new growth by means of a cell-free filtrate. Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc., vol. 56, 1911. . Birrner, J. J. Some possible effects of nursing on the mammary gland tumor incidence in mice. Science, vol. 84, 1936. . Manager, R. A., and Groupk, V. Discrete foci of altered chicken embryo cells associated with Rous sarcoma virus in tissue culture. Virology, vol. 2, 1956. . SKIPPER, H. H., and BENNETT, L. L., Jk. Biochemistry of cancer. Ann. Rev. Biochem., vol. 27, 1958. CoHEN, S. 8., and Barner, H. D. The death of bacteria as a function of unbalanced growth. Pediatrics, vol. 16, 1955. STANLEY, W. M. The potential significance of nucleic acids and nucleo- proteins of specific composition in malignancy. Texas Rep. Biol. and Med., vol. 15, 1957. . Hsrune, G. D., and MELNIckK, J. L. Orphan viruses of man and animals. Ann. New York Acad. Sci., vol. 70, June 3, 1958. Coons, A. H., and KApnian, M. H. Localization of antigen in tissue cells. II. Improvements in a method for the detection of antigen by means of fluorescent antibody. Journ. Exper. Med., vol. 91, 1950. Armstrong, J. A., and NivEN, J. S. F. Histochemical observations on cellu- lar and virus nucleic acids. Nature (London), vol. 180, 1957. HUuEBNER, R. J. Viruses in search of disease. Ann. New York Acad. Sci., vol. 67, 1957. Sak, J. E. Mechanisms of convalescent immunity and how it may be stim- ulated. In The Dynamics of Virus and Rickettsial Infections, ed. Ff. W. Hartman, F. L. Horsfall, Jr., and J. G. Kidd. New York, 1954. Horsratn, F. L., Jr., and Tamm, I. Chemotherapy of viral and rickettsial diseases. Ann. Rey. Microbiol., vol. 11, 1957. In Search of a Home! FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND (1789-1790) By H. E. Mauve Senior Fellow in Pacific History The Australian National University [With 1 plate] So mucw Fact and fiction have been written about the mutiny on His Majesty’s armed vessel Bounty, and the vicissitudes of the Anglo- Polynesian settlement on Pitcairn Island which resulted from it, that it might well seem that everything that can be said on the subject must have been long since placed on record. This would not be true, however, of any time in Pitcairn’s history, for the main chroniclers? were either primarily concerned with the Bligh versus Christian controversy or in painting an edifying pic- ture of moral regeneration: for these purposes they were content to use, as their source material, virtually nothing except the reports or published narratives of a few naval officers, in one or two instances adding traditional information obtained from the islanders of the second generation. This generalization has particular application to the months im- mediately succeeding the mutiny itself, concerning which the naval officers tell us little, and that recorded from one informant only [John Adams] long after the events themselves. Despite its importance to any accurate understanding of subsequent Pitcairn history, this period is invariably dismissed in a few para- graphs, in which the dearth of fact may be disguised by pious observa- tions on such themes as the alleged deterioration in Fletcher Christian’s character, Yet these months were actually packed with incidents: the first five witnessing the establishment of the settlement on Tubuai, its subse- 1Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 67, No. 2, June 1958. ?The three classics on Pitcairn history are by Barrow (1831), Murray (1853), and Lady Belcher (1870). Other standard books by Brodie (1851), Young (1894), and Shapiro (1936) add nothing fresh on the presettlement period. The only modern historian to make any significant use of new source material is Mackaness (1931), but his account of postmutiny events is naturally only incidental to his main theme. 533 534 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 quent abandonment and the defection of the majority of Chris- tian’s party; and the last four a voyage in the Bounty for those who remained that ranks with the epics of Pacific exploration, and led to the discovery of one of the principal islands in the South Seas. That it is now possible to tell this story for the first time is due to two fairly recent discoveries (or more properly rediscoveries) : the Journal of James Morrison, covering the Tubuai period, and the two narratives of Teehuteatuaonoa, or Jenny, the wife of Isaac Martin, for the voyage to Pitcairn. Morrison’s Journal was seen and cited by both Barrow and Lady Belcher, but the quotations are meager and not always scrupulously reproduced. After Lady Belcher’s death the manuscript disappeared and, despite all efforts to trace its whereabouts, it was not until about 1930 that it was discovered safely deposited in the Mitchell Library at Sydney: it has now been published (Morrison, 1935). Morrison, who was one of the Bounty’s crew who elected to remain in Tahiti, evidently prepared this journal from notes made at the time. It is possible to verify the correctness of so many of his state- ments from other sources that one is left in no doubt as to its relia- bility, at least where his personal interests are not concerned. Owen Rutter, in his introduction to the published edition, pays tribute to “the meticulous detail, the niceness of observation and the accuracy of the dates” in the journal; and his encomiums are well earned, for Morrison was a born observer and recorder with a genuine and sympathetic interest in the island peoples, whether on Tahiti or Tubuai. With but little training he would have made a first-rate anthropologist. Jenny was also in her way a remarkable character. Described as “a, good looking woman in her time,” she went with John Adams to Tubuai and was tattooed by him AS/1789 on her left arm.* She landed on Pitcairn as Isaac Martin’s wife but was never reconciled to life there, possibly because she had no children of her own to com- pensate for the loss of her relatives and friends on Tahiti. After the death of her husband, Jenny led the abortive attempt of the women to leave Pitcairn in a boat, and finally succeeded in getting away by the whaler Sultan in 1817. On her return to Tahiti she gave two separate accounts of her experiences; one published in the Sydney Gazette for July 17, 1819 (Teehuteatuaonoa, 1819),* and the second in the Bengal Hurkaru for October 2, 1826 (Teehuteatua- onoa, 1826).5 She was also interviewed by Kotzebue in March 1824, 3 John Adams signed on the Bounty as Alexander Smith, but changed to his proper name after Folger’s visit to Pitcairn in 1808. 4This is an entirely different account from her later narrative, though not inconsistent with it, and is concerned for the main part with the period after the settlement. 5 An account dictated to the Rev. Henry Nott in the presence of Capt. Peter Dillon and communicated by the latter verbatim to the Bengal Hurkaru. 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Ph pea at fos Yo #& 7 4 Se ff fy hose: ¢ A a 2 ens ae Sh ots eee ge Or Gne 7 Phere Teer fe Gas a al ¢ Ay pra Fe} 4 4 ; : ee ,, Ae oe ae by aed A oe - a 5 4 4, HRY rife het ¢- CEVEPELE ites Adee * vy, ie J HELPS 4 YP de bi f 5 Y ‘ Lf 4 ) i, A 4 Lot he if, ; Ba Ayr a tte th Pi, rey fees a } ' MAGE EA ASE ar r while Ae falas et A é Ar JOGA th fh e97 ‘ uy 5 Z & : : ’ oe ae * P) Cat /a7> 4 het é os a it on Ef) a a0 L499 6 a L900 fella! : 4 74 o a <4 ” 4 Fe ferste sine 7 i : : 9 Va - ‘ * f , : f . * A Dp belied: Jaa ee a Seefeld ensicg however pe teas Cerda "2%. GA / 4 Lee * A page from the manuscript journal of James Morrison, boatswain’s mate of the Bounty, recording the events immediately following the vessel’s arrival at ‘Tubuai. (From the original in the Mitchell Library, Sydney.) FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—MAUDE 535 who said that she “spoke tolerably good English, but with a foreign accent.” (Kotzebue, 1830, vol. 1, p. 225 ff.) Jenny’s narratives are not only consistent with each other, but in all cases where they can be checked from other material they have proved to be reliable. One has to remember that her interests were those of a woman, and a Tahitian, but her testimony is, in general, more trustworthy than that of Adams, who was apt to be careless with his facts even when not deliberately misleading; and she gives the best account we possess of events from the date of the final departure from Tahiti in September 1789, to Folger’s discovery of the Pitcairn settle- ment in 1808. In the following pages I have tried to piece together the story of the Bounty mutineers to the day of their landing on Pitcairn, using first Morrison and later Jenny as the main sources of information, but freely checking and amplifying by recourse to every other source that has come to light as a result of some years of delving into Pitcairn history, and 9 months spent on the island itself. TRIAL AND ERROR ON TUBUAI With the details of the mutiny which took place on the Bounty on the morning of April 28, 1789, we are not concerned here. (The best account is in Mackaness, 1931.) Nearly 170 years later the protago- nists of Bligh and Christian are still engaged in apportioning the blame; an exercise which one feels at times tells us more about the personality of the writer than the characters and motives of the two opponents. Our narrative commences as Bligh was cast adrift, 10 leagues south- west of Tofua, one of the Tonga Islands, to the sound of “Huzza for Otaheite” from the mutineers (Bligh, 1937, vol. 2, p. 122). Even these huzzas have been denied Bligh by his opponents (Barrow, 1914 ed., p. 100; Mackaness, 1931, p. 172, quoting Lady Belcher), on the grounds that no one else appeared to have heard them. His vindica- tion, however, comes from Adams himself, who told Buffett that when the mutiny occurred “he was sleeping in his hammock, but as soon as he heard the proposal he exclaimed ‘Hurrah for Otaheite.”” (Buf- fett, 1846, p.2.) ° Christian now took charge and, after sounding the views of the 25 men remaining on the Bounty, determined to make for Tubuai, in the Austral Group, with a view to prospecting it as their possible fu- ture home, before calling at Tahiti for provisioning. Tubuai had *See also Adams’s statement to Beechey that as the launch, with Bligh on board, was being cast off “immediately ‘Huzza for Otaheite!’ echoed throughout the Bounty” (Beechey, 1831, vol. 1, p. 76). 536608—60——36 536 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 been discovered by Captain Cook in 1777 but no landing made, and to Christian, reading the account in the narrative of Cook’s voyages in Bligh’s cabin (Shillibeer, 1817, pp. 97-98), it seemed the best island to select for a retreat: he was never under any illusion as to his prob- able fate if he remained on Tahiti itself. The voyage took a month, the time being employed in clearing the great cabin of its breadfruit plants (except for a few kept for planting on Tubuai) and in making a uniform for all hands out of old studding sails, as Christian believed that wearing it impressed the natives. He himself moved into Bligh’s cabin. A visit of inspection.—The reception at Tubuai was anything but encouraging. The natives, seeing so few on board surrounded by so many desirable possessions and being ignorant of the power of fire- arms, commenced threatening and thieving while the ship’s cutter was still examining the passage through the reef. The following day, the Bounty being anchored inside the lagoon, 18 girls were sent on board as decoys, “all young and handsome having fine long hair which reached their Waists in waving ringlets” (Morrison, 1935, p. 49),’ accompanied by 5 men who soon commenced stealing whatever they could lay their hands on. Fifty canoes filled with warriors, complete with cords for securing the mutineers when captured, came up on the other side and, much against his will, Christian was compelled to fire on them to avert a general attack. He learned later that the natives lost 11 men and a woman in this encounter, the site of which was christened Bloody Bay. Despite this initial discouragement, Christian continued for two more days in an attempt to conciliate the islanders by leaving presents in their now deserted homes—but they were not to be drawn. His visits ashore, however, confirmed him in his opinion of the suit- ability of Tubuai for settlement: its size (5 miles by 3) was scarcely sufficient to attract visitors, especially when the large and more fertile island of Tahiti was only 300 miles away; it had a poor anchorage and only one passage into the lagoon navigable by ships, and its population was thought to be small enough ® to be propitiated into friendship or overawed into submission. ™ Morrison is the main authority for the whole Tubuai episode: a few subsidiary checks, however, are obtainable from the accounts of eyewitnesses given in Edwards and Hamilton, 1915, pp. 84-38 ; Henry, 1928, pp. 26-28 ; Heywood’s letter reproduced in Barrow, 1914 ed., pp. 194-196; Teehuteatuaonoa, 1826; Lee, 1920, pp. 95-97; and two versions by John Adams in Beechey, 1831, vol. 1, pp. 76-80, and Moerenhout, 1837, vol. 2, pp. 288-292. 5It was estimated to have been 900 in 1821, but Morrison’s claim that it was 3,000 in 1789 is consistent with the other figures given in the course of his narrative. Venereal disease, which is said to have caused many deaths, was almost certainly introduced by the mutineers, 11 of whom (including Christian, Adams, Quintal, and Brown) had been treated during the course of the voyage; 9 of these after the vessel’s arrival at Tahiti (Smith, 1936, pp. 216-217). In 1821-23 an epidemic reduced the population to 300 (Caillot, 1909, p. 71; Aitkin, 1930, p. 4; Montgomery, 1831, vol. 2, pp. 75-76). It has now re- covered to over 1,000, partly through immigration from other islands. FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—MAUDE bot Return to Tahiti—While there was plenty of coconut, breadfruit, and banana trees, as well as taro, on Tubuai, no livestock could be found, and this determined Christian to press on to Tahiti immedi- ately to procure a cargo of pigs, goats, and chickens, together with some women as companions and men to assist in raising crops and act as interpreters with the local population: even Christian’s knowledge of Tahitian had proved insufficient for effective communication, and the others spoke hardly a word. Despite the evidence of Fryer (Rutter, 1931, pp. 32-33) that only Stewart and Morrison (and of Adams to Beechey [Beechey, 1831, vol. 1, p. 72] that only Quintal) had any serious feminine attach- ments at Tahiti, it is clear that virtually every member of the Bounty’s crew, officers as well as men, had contracted some sort of alliance with a Tahitian ¢azo, or friend. And if Christian was busy with the over-all plan of settlement, Adams, in a statement made just before his death to Moerenhout, indicates what was uppermost in the minds of most of the rest: “We lacked women; and, remembering Tahiti, where all of us had made intimate friendships, we decided to return there, so that we could each obtain one” (Moerenhout, 1837, vol. 2, p. 289). Leaving Tubuai on May 31, the Bounty anchored in Matavai Bay on June 6, where everyone seemed glad to see them back and evinced little curiosity as to the reason for their unexpected return. To those who inquired, Christian explained that they had met Captain Cook, who had taken Bligh and the others with the breadfruit plants and sent him back to obtain a supply of animals to stock a settlement which he was making on Aitutaki (which he described as being in New Holland!) : Bligh had fortunately forbidden his crew to mention Cook’s death, as had Watts before him. This story apparently satisfied everybody and, business being brisk, by June 16 Christian had obtained some 460 pigs, 50 goats, and a number of chickens; together with a bull and a cow left by Cook, and a few dogs and cats for good measure. About 28 Tahitians® also accompanied the expedition, most of them stowaways who only ap- peared when it was too late to return them ashore. Among them was Hitihiti, a young chief from Borabora, and an expert shot, who had sailed with Cook to Tonga, New Zealand, the Antarctic, and the Marquesas in 1773-1774.1° No one seemed worried when told that they would never see Tahiti again. In addition, there were consorts for several of the Kuropeans— Mauatea (Isabella) with Fletcher Christian, Teehuteatuaonoa ® According to Adams; Morrison’s figure {s 9 men, 10 women, 8 boys and a girl. 10 Hitihiti, an insatiable traveler, was later to accompany Bligh on his second expedi- tion in the Providence, having been engaged to assist the botanist in taking care of the breadfruit (Henry, 1928, pp. 27, 31). 538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 (Jenny) with John Adams (Teehuteatuaonoa, 1826), Mary with Thomas McIntosh (Lee, 1920, pp. 95-96)—but alas, not enough, for as Adams said later: “We did not find as many women as we wanted. Nine only came on board; and with them, eight men and about ten boys. After some ineffective efforts to persuade more women to follow us, we returned to Tubuai” (Moerenhout, 1837, vol. 2, pp. 289- 290). ‘They reached it on June 23. Tubuai in 1789.—In contrast to the first, the second visit to Tubuai showed some promise of being a success; the natives were unexpectedly peaceful and friendly and the Tahitians, who soon mastered the local dialect, were able to facilitate good relations. While the pre-European political organization of Tubuai has never been adequately studied, it is now possible, from Morrison and other sources, to reconstruct the main features as they existed at the time of the Bounty’s visit! The island was then divided into three districts, each under its chief : (i) Toerauetoru (now Mataura)—centered on the north coast opposite the lagoon entrance—under the chief Hiterire ’*; (ii) Natieva (now Taahuaia)—on the northeast coast—under Tahuhuatama; and (111) Paorani (now deserted)—inland and to the east of Na- tieva—under Tinarou. Tahuhuatama, who was old, had apparently handed over most of his functions to his son, Taroatohoa; as had Hiterire to Tamatoa, prob- ably for the same reason. Tamatoa’s (or Hiterire’s) domain #* was by far the largest and ex- tended over Nahitorono (now Mahu) in the south, and possibly over the district of Tuporo (now Hanamea) on the west coast; or, in other words, the whole western half of the island. The dynasty had been founded by his great-great-grandfather, a chief on Raiatea (from whom the royal family on Tahiti were also descended [ Morrison, 1935, pp. 73-74; Caillot, 1910, p. 489]), who had been blown there in a storm and accepted as overlord by the few people then living on the island, themselves fairly recent arrivals from Rurutu and Raivavae or, according to Caillot, 1910, p. 488, from Rimitara. Despite marriage alliances (Tinarou was married to Tahuhua- tama’s sister) warfare between the districts was more or less endemic 1 By far the best account of Tubuai society is given in Morrison, 1935, pp. 48-74. Mor- rison was an exceptionally gifted observer and it is unfortunate that his narrative was not available to Aitkin. But see also Montgomery, 1831, vol. 2, pp. 75-76; Hillis, 1831, vol, 3, pp. 383-387 ; Moerenhout, 1837, vol. 1, p. 149; Aitkin, 1930, passim, but particularly pp. 30-33. YT have modernized some of Morrison’s orthography. In particular, and at the sug- gestion of Dr. Kenneth P. Emory, of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, the name Taroatchoa (an impossible sound in the Tubuaian dialect) is written as Taroatohoa. 13 Tamatoa’s relation to Hiterire is obscure but he was evidently, in effect, the executive power. FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—MAUDE 539 until the year 1822 when Nott, the missionary, succeeded in negotiat- ing a final peace between Tamatoa, whom he recognized as “by heredi- tary right, the King of the island,’ and Tahuhuatama. (Ellis, 1831, vol. 3, pp. 385-887.) The dynasties then appear to have united and Tamatoa IV, who was buried in the marae at Peetau, near Natieva, was also known as Tahuhuatama. In 1844 the island was governed by a Tamatoa, and his descendants continued to reign until the island became a French possession in 1880 (Aitkin, 1930, pp. 121-123). Fort George.—Christian and Tamatoa were soon on terms of friend- ship, exchanging names and presents at a formal ceremony. Blame for the hostility shown on the first visit was put on Tinarou and his followers, who together with almost the entire population of the is- land had congregated at Bloody Bay when the Bounty appeared at the entrance to the lagoon: after the ship’s departure they left again for their own territory. An epidemic which immediately followed the visit was ascribed to the wrath of the gods at their having attacked the vessel; a factor which no doubt helped to bring about the better reception experienced on their return from Tahiti. Unfortunately, however, the only suitable land which Christian could find for his proposed settlement was 4 miles to the east of the reef passage, or well within Tahuhuatama’s territory. On a visit there he was warmly greeted by Taroatohoa and offered his choice of any land he desired ; names were again exchanged as a token of friend- ship, and indeed Taroatohoa and his family never wavered in their loyalty to Christian right up to the day of his departure. But this action brought with it the enmity of Tamatoa, who promptly made an alliance with Tinarou, by which both agreed to boycott the Europeans, who for their part were willing and anxious to engage in barter. The supply of provisions was thus greatly curtailed, as Taroatohoa’s district (the smallest of the three) could not supply enough to satisfy their requirements, and measures had to be taken to conserve the remaining ship’s stores and the livestock brought from Tahiti. Nevertheless, Christian pressed on with his plans for settlement, and the Bounty was warped up through the shoal lagoon with some difficulty and anchored off Natieva. (See map, fig. 1.) The land required for the proposed colony was purchased from Taroatohoa for a quantity of red feathers (Buffett, 1846, p.2). Chris- tian had fortunately brought a supply of these with him from Tahiti, as they proved to be much in demand on Tubuai, whereas no interest was shown in the axes and other iron tools which on most islands were preferred above all other goods except muskets. Indeed, it was hard to find any European article which the Tubuai people would acknowledge as better than their own, even cloth being rejected as ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 540 pune, Pu] JO Sajnoyy c-c- COS6T ‘URY wor; poidepy) “68LT UE pues] renqny—] aunory EE II 2 uiyon BI 7) le aCe: gt Ro bur e enjoy wor FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—-MAUDE 541 inferior to their glazed, or varnished, ¢apa, which was considered to be more rainproof. The rest of the red feathers and also some Tahiti tapa, which if not highly regarded proved at least acceptable, were divided up amongst the Europeans in the hope of stimulating trade in local produce. On July 18 work commenced ashore in earnest; parties were detailed to prepare spades, hoes, and mattocks, to clear ground and plant yams, while the main body set to work on the construction of a fortress. This was to consist of walls 18 feet thick at the base, surrounded by a moat 18 feet wide by 20 feet deep crossed by a drawbridge, with four-pounders at each corner and swivel guns on each side, the whole measuring an area of 100 square yards including the moat. Though it never reached these ambitious dimensions, Fort George, as it was called, must have been a formidable edifice even in its un- completed state. Forty years later Moerenhout was shown the ruins (Moerenhout, 1887, vol. 1, p. 149), which were still standing in 1902, when they were examined by Seale, who wrote: The fort consists of the ordinary military square of earth work thrown up to the heights of perhaps 6—7 feet. Its open side faces the sea, about 300 feet distant; the size of the fort is 125 feet by 120 feet [see diagram, fig. 2]. It is now overgrown with trees and brush and a native house is in the open side (Seale, MS. 1902). Christian worked as hard as anyone on this unfamiliar task, which was intended to defend the community mainly against the natives, as shown by the fact that the side facing the shore was never com- pleted, but also from an attack by any European vessel sent to find them. Meanwhile, his difficulties were increasing: it was hard, for instance, to maintain discipline, and the ship had hardly been an- chored before Sumner and Quintal had to be punished for going ashore without leave, asserting that “we are now our own Masters.” Replying that he would show them who was Master, Christian promptly put them in irons at the point of a pistol. Native relations—To prevent further trouble from this cause two men were allowed to sleep ashore each night (and as many as wanted could go on Sundays). Whereupon Tinarou’s women set to work to entice them into his territory, where his men proceeded to take their clothes. On July 25 a party collecting coconuts was ambushed. A few days later John Adams, clad only in a shirt, had to be rescued from Tinarou’s own house. Unlike others, the girl he had followed proved a genuine friend, for she played no part in his discomfiture and indeed followed him back to the ship, fearing reprisals from her own people: one presumes this was after Jenny had left him for Isaac Martin. Despite what he probably felt to be unjustified provocation, Chris- tian continued his policy of conciliation. Messengers were sent to 542 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 + ‘“SOUNTY'’ eae ad Anchorage ——“~ _-_~— Ficure 2.—Seale’s diagram of Fort George. Tinarou asking for the return of articles stolen and offering friend- ship; and it was only when these had come back rebuffed that the chief’s “Household Gods” were removed and his house burnt down. On September 2 Tinarou and his followers arrived loaded with presents and suing for peace and the return of his gods. But it was all treachery; and might well have succeeded if one of the Tahitian boys had not warned Christian in time. Failure of an experiment.—Throughout all this excitement Tahu- huatama and his family continued to be friendly, watching the Tahitian hetva and showing their own dances in return. Even the friendly natives, however, would not allow their women to join the Kuropeans “tho they had no objection to their Sleeping with them at their own houses.” To the mutineers this was the final straw. The dénouement is well summed up by Morrison: [They] began to Murmer, and Insisted that Mr. Christian would head them, and bring the Weomen in to live with them by force and refused to do any more work till evry man had a Wife, and as Mr. Christians desire was to perswade rather then force them, He positively refused to have any thing to do with such an absurd demand. Three Days were Spent in debate, and having nothing to employ themselves in, they demanded more Grog this he also refused, when they broke the lock of the Spirit room and took it by force (Morrison, 1935, p. 60). Christian could do nothing in the face of this general strike, and on September 10 he was forced to call a meeting to consider future plans. After much argument, and against his strong advice, it was at length decided by 16 votes to 9 that they should “go to Tahiti and there Seperate, where they might get Weomen without force.” It was agreed that those who elected to remain on Tahiti should be given arms, ammunition, and a fair share of everything on the Bounty, while Christian’s party should have the ship “in a proper Condition to go to Sea, with Her Sails Tackle and furniture.” Of the 16 who voted for Tahiti not all were actuated by the same reasons: the major- FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—MAUDE 543 ity were typically improvident seamen, content to enjoy today; but at least three of them, Heywood, Stewart, and Morrison, who con- sidered that they were not implicated in the mutiny and had already planned to escape from Tubuai, regarded the move as the means by which they might eventually hope to return to England. Christian’s brother Edward, the distinguished jurist, gives a dramatic account of the scene in the great cabin of the Bounty when, realizing that the feeling of the meeting was against him, he made his last plea before the vote was taken : Gentlemen, I will carry you, and land you, wherever you please. I desire none to stay with me, but I have one favour to request, that you will grant me the ship, tie the foresail, and give me a few gallons of water, and leave me to run before the wind, and I shall land upon the first island the ship drives to. I have done such an act that I cannot stay at Otaheite. I will never live where I may be carried home to be a disgrace to my family. It is entirely consistent with Christian’s character to suppose that he would have done just this. But he was not to be put to the test, for his loyal companion Edward Young, followed by seven of the seamen, gave their votes to him, with the promise: “We shall never leave you, Mr. Christian, go where you will.” The final battle—Both Adams and Jenny speak of a further battle. According to the former, this was precipitated by a rumor that the natives were to be exterminated and that the moat was being dug to bury them in, but in Jenny’s version it was due to a con- spiracy between one of the Tahitians and the Tubuai people to take the ship, murder the crew and divide their property: she adds that Christian’s wife, who told her husband of the plot, never disclosed that one of her own countrymen was at the bottom of it (Beechey, 1831, vol. 1, p. 78; Teehuteatuaonoa, 1826). A more probable reason for the fighting that occurred was, how- ever, given by the Tubuai natives themselves, who asserted that it was due to attempts made by the Tahitians, under Christian’s orders, to round up the livestock which had been landed, and in particular the 200 pigs which had been let loose on the island. These must have initially played havoc in the plantations, but the people had begun to appreciate their value, and resented their removal. In the skirmish which ensued: The natives were numerous, and fought with great courage, forcing the mutineers to avail themselves of a rising ground, where, with their superior skill, the advantage of fire-arms, and the aid of the Otaheiteans, who fought 14 Edward Christian in the Appendix to Barney (1794), quoted by Rutter (1931, p. 35). Christian’s information was obtained, together with other evidence, from Heywood, Mor- rison, Muspratt, Coleman, M’Intosh, and Byrn, all of whom were present at the meeting. While, as Bligh points out, these were men of varying degrees of credit, and no indication is given as to the particular information obtained from each, I submit that in this instance, where his narrative tells if anything against his brother, we can accept it as substantially reliable. 544 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 bravely on this occasion, they at last came off victorious, with only one or two of themselves wounded, whilst the dead bodies of the Toobouaians covered the spot, and were afterwards thrown up in three or four heaps (Wilson, 1799, pp. 51-52). In this, and the various other disputes with the mutineers, the Tubuai people were said to have lost nearly a hundred men. It can scarcely be wondered that as a result their attitude toward Europeans became so hostile that Captain Wilson, of the missionary ship Duff, feared to land there in 1797. Postmortem.—It is not difficult to sense, in retrospect, that the Tubuai experiment never could have succeeded on the lines intended by Christian: a small enclave of whites subsisting as a cooperative agricultural community in the middle of a virile native society. Even if the entire body of immigrant Europeans had possessed the humanitarian views of Christian on native rights, it would have been difficult enough to maintain friendly relations with the faction-ridden inhabitants of a closely populated island where every inch of the area was owned and the most suitable areas occupied. But most of the mutineers had no conception at all of native rights, and even Christian, though he would not permit the forcible abduction of the island women, had to countenance the seizure of food supplies when sufficient could not be obtained by barter. Morrison mentions that the local priests, who had great authority, were alienated at an early stage. Not unreasonably, they— could not bear to see such superiority as the Europeans in general usurp over those who differ from themselves, and became jealous of us with respect to their religious authority to which they saw that we not only refused to take notice of but even ridiculed, for this reason they used all the Means in their power to keep the Chiefs from making Friends, thinking perhaps that if we staid in the Island, their Consequence would be lessen’d, which in all probability would have been the Case (Morrison, 1935, p. 71). Conflict with the islanders was therefore inevitable, but it could probably have been postponed if Christian had not made the initial error of antagonizing Tamatoa, the most powerful chief on the island, by deliberately electing to settle in the territory of his rival. Had his explorations taken him west instead of east he might well have found suitable land for his purpose in the fertile area around Tuporo, which is largely isolated by swamps from the rest of Tubuai, where he could have lived with a minimum of contact, and consequent friction—but only for a time. Christian can hardly be blamed for the implacable antagonism of Tinarou, but the domain of this chief was situated at the other end of the island. Even the much-coveted women would presumably have arrived in due course, if the mutineers could have restrained their impatience, for the unmarried Tubuai girl had considerable freedom in bestowing her favors and it is unlikely that a “O6LT ‘£7 Asenuel 03 “ER/T ‘87 [dy “Krunog ay Jo yoes poronsysuccoy—'¢ a¥NoIy SechoS Oe Se CEsORS Fo SOS 5 GOS 7 : eee ae Sete eto s Webs e . co e ay QOAVAIVY= oa IL 1) li se aa) - facial oe Sc . Sy yp tA Cj $ SAS ~ : 1 Ving} yours e TOO ade — . gs Pla ° i ao CEI OV SSS ear, Se , & y! weLsoY fee OSI Slate eaten PS Me 9 ou eee 2 -obvo}°A PY S55 ae ooo Bua, Q ~~ growonale oy an P(e errs Bits Sona oon eoee ow 7-040 © ae aa Baie casi eee ' aon oOun et yop war) he oe 1 aia, ae “eat eu ep Uc ae Ss e , ’ c: ww. o s (a) Of . > 5 U Wow 7 S ‘$1 HONOL eo ’ « ~~ hi ° s “ os Ge @ pee, Eee: > ‘ 4 e 2 sore” Sy Zs ie M4 On ae 0° he 5 & = Fis o¢ Sonu 4s} 3 ° “0 7 ts ern 20 a ; Cn 5 ce ALowunat Sy wows A P Z =) ne 4 pce © if ; ‘S| OUYEMOL “TIDY wr 546 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 sufficient number would not have come to appreciate the economic advantages of marriage with a Kuropean. The inevitable might thus have been delayed; but it could not have been prevented. It is impossible to believe that, with the prejudiced, ignorant, and unruly men who comprised most of his followers, Christian could have maintained a respect for native customary rights over any long period; and in point of fact, several of his party did not want the experiment to succeed if it should militate against their chances of escape to civilization. The history of other isolated Pacific islands invaded by parties of Europeans shows us that, if they stayed for any length of time, they either provoked an open conflict and were overwhelmed by numbers, as on Nauru and Abemama, or infiltrated into the villages, where they became beachcombers often barely distinguishable in their mode of life from the natives themselves. In islands not so isolated, such as Hawaii and Tahiti, this was not, of course, the case, since the constant introduction of new blood from visiting ships and the possibility of engaging in commercial pursuits enabled the formation of more stable immigrant groups. As it was, the occupation of Tubuai did not last long enough for either of these alternatives to eventuate, but ended in failure and with- drawal after a bare 3 months, before the fort or a single home had been completed; and under the circumstances, this was probably the best ending that could have occurred. Christian had learned his les- son the hard way: that the only island on which he could safely make his future home must be one without any existing inhabitants. Tubuai, then, was foredoomed to be a failure; but it was a necessary one, for without the mistakes made and the experience gained there, Christian would never have appreciated the minimum requirements for successful colonization. The extent to which he made use of this experience on Pitcairn is another story, but the important point here is that without it to guide his choice the chances were decidedly against his ever even thinking of selecting that particular island, out of so many possibles, for his future home. As we shall discover from the remaining pages of this study, even with the necessary criteria now known, Pitcairn was far from being Christian’s immediate or first choice. The corollary of Tubuai is thus seen to be the saga of the Bounty’s four months of wandering “in search of a home.” PITCAIRN AND THE VOYAGE THITHER Before leaving Tubuai on September 17 a younger brother of Taroatohoa, called Taroamiva, came on board with two of his friends, as he considered that his life was in danger ashore owing to his friend- FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—-MAUDE 547 ship with Christian, who accordingly agreed to take them to Tahiti (Morrison, 1935, pp. 63-64). On the 20th they were under the lee of Mehetia, where the trade goods, arms and ammunition, wine and slops, and other articles were divided into shares. ‘Two days later they reached Matavai Bay and, with the help of the natives, the belongings of the shore party were all landed by nightfall. Among them were the “Household Gods” of the chief Tinarou?® which later created a sensation when pre- sented to the young Prince Tu (afterward King Pomare I) on behalf of the ship’s company (Morrison, 1935, pp. 74-78). Hitihiti, who made the presentation, and the other Tahitian men went ashore, delighted to be back, and with them went one of Taroamiva’s companions from Tubuai. But during the course of the day three other Tahitian men (one was actually a Raiatean) and a boy came on board, with a number of women. Christian also went ashore and spent some hours discussing with Heywood and Stewart the events connected with the mutiny, for which he declared himself entirely responsible. He stated that a warship would certainly be sent to look for them, whether or not Bligh succeeded in reaching civilization, and strongly advised them to give themselves up on its arrival, since neither of them had taken any part in the affair. After requesting Heywood to communicate certain matters to his family, which he felt might at least serve to extenuate his crime, he rowed to the Bounty and set her course out of the bay (Belcher, 1870, pp. 50-51). The brig “Mercury.”—On their arrival in Tahiti the mutineers had been told that there was now another European in the island named Brown, who had been left by Capt. J. H. Cox of the brig Mercury. As Brown was not seen until after Christian’s departure, the latter never learnt how near he had been to discovery when all hands were busily engaged in the building of Fort George. Yet from Mortimer’s narrative of the voyage it is clear that Cox sighted Tubuai on his way to Tahiti and that it was only the advent of darkness that pre- vented him from communicating with the islanders and, in all prob- ability, from seeing the Bounty at her anchorage inside the reef: August 9, 1789. In the afternoon, we saw the Island of Toobouai, bearing North East by East half East, distant about eleven leagues; and at eight at night passed within two miles of it. We perceived several lights on shore, and fired two guns to draw the attention of the inhabitants; but night prevented us from seeing them. Owing to the dark, the A/ercury got too close to the reef and, had it been calm, she would have been driven onto it by the swell “as the 145 Described as two carved images ornamented with pearl shell and human teeth, hair, and nails, and set in a nest of the red tail feathers of the tropicbird. 548 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 breakers were not a quarter of a mile from us when we wore ship” (Mortimer, 1791, p. 22). It is intriguing to consider the infinite possibilities had Captain Cox heard of the presence of another ship at Tubuai and stopped for a sociable call, as he would assuredly have done, being in no hurry; still more of what would have occurred had the weather been calm and the Mercury wrecked on the island. However, the brig passed on her way oblivious of the drama she was leaving behind, and during their stay in Tahiti the crew were much mystified by all the talk of Titreano (Christian) and Tootate (Aitutaki). The Tahitians told Mortimer that Titreano was Cap- tain Bligh’s Chief Officer who had returned in the Bounty without Bligh, having left him at Tootate: This story was corroborated by Otoo and several chiefs ; who further informed us that Captain Titreano had sailed but fifteen days before our arrival, and had carried several Otaheitan families with him to Tootate. Where Tootate could be, and who they meant by Titreano, we could not then conjecture (Mor- timer, 1791, p. 33) .*° When one considers this near miss at discovery just six weeks after the arrival of the mutineers at Tubuai, one wonders how long it really would have taken before Christian’s fancied security was at an end. Abduction by night—To return to the Bounty, sailing out of Matavai Bay in the early morning of September 23. There were then 35 on board. Nine of these were Europeans: KletchersChristian== = eee Acting lieutenant. Hdwarditvoung i222 ss5 22 See eer ee Midshipman. Johns Miliss= 3s Se eee ee Gunner’s mate. sage Martin 2-32 ee Se Able seaman. WALT amie CKO yaa === et ae eee Do. Matthews@ ante Saas eee Do. AVexand Gree Simi thes es eee ey ee eek Do. TOMA Wallisimne ee Se eee ee ee ee Do. William Brown t= aes 2 ees Botanist’s assistant. With them were 6 Polynesian men, 19 women, and a little girl. It is clear from Jenny’s record (which is confirmed by Adams’s statement to Captain Beechey) that, with the exception of Taroamiva and his companions “who were now become very fond of Mr. Christian and would not leave him,” and probably of Christian’s wife and Jenny 16QOn Mortimer’s return to England the significance of what he had heard was immedi- ately realized and the authorities informed, thus providing Captain Edwards with the most plausible of the false clues that were to mislead him in his search for the mutineers a year later. (Letter from Sir Charles Blagden to Lord Palmerston, 29.6.1790, Mitchell Library phot Ab 216/1.) 17 The names are as inscribed in the Bounty’s Muster Book and Pay Book (see Smith, 1936, p. 212.) Alexander Smith later reverted to his real name of John Adams, while Mickoy came to be known as McCoy. FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—MAUDE 549 herself, the natives on board the Lounty were in fact kidnaped against their will: blackbirding was now added to mutiny. As it was absolutely essential to success that this time there should be no shortage of women, plans were evidently laid carefully to insure that there would not be. On arrival Christian announced to all that he would be staying at least over night. The women—many of them no doubt former companions of the Europeans—were thereupon invited on board, “with the feigned purpose of taking leave” (Beechey, 1831, vol. 1, p. 80). No doubt they came readily enough, as their sisters and mothers had been accustomed to do since the first ship touched their shores. They were then told that the Bounty would be moving to Pare, Prince Tuw’s district, in the morning, and taken down to supper and bed. When Christian returned on board the anchor cable was quietly cut and the ship got underway ; and by the time the natives discovered that they had been tricked she was a mile outside the reefs. Even so, one of the women jumped overboard and set out for the shore: Jenny says that most of the remainder would have liked to have followed suit, but lacked the courage. Later in the morning the Lounty passed close to the atoll of Teti- aroa, 26 miles to the north of Tahiti, “but not so near as to admit any of the women venturing to swim on shore there, which several of them were inclined to do, as they were much afflicted at being torn away from their friends and relatives.” Permanent female partners were now selected—one each for the mutineers and three in all for the natives—and the ship headed for Moorea, only 9 miles from Tahiti, where a canoe came out from the shore on which the six surplus women who, as Jenny puts it, were “rather ancient,” were permitted to depart (Teehuteatuaonoa, 1826). Let us now follow the track of the Bounty in search of a home, with her final complement of 28 (including the infant) on board: the future population of Pitcairn Island. The Isles of Mendana and Quiros.—To even the most casual student of Pitcairn’s history it must have seemed curious that whereas the Bounty left Tahiti on September 23, 1789, she did not arrive at Pit- cairn until January 15, 1790, thus taking 4 months to complete a passage of 1,200 miles which should have occupied about a fortnight. Most authorities have been content to ignore the awkward dis- crepancy in dates, while the more conscientious have implied either that the Bounty cruised around looking for the island, apparently for some 314 months, or else that she actually arrived there during October or early November, despite all evidence to the contrary. In point of fact, she did neither. The evidence as to her movements during this period is admittedly not as detailed as we could wish, but 550 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 certain points can be established with a considerable degree of prob- ability, enabling others to be deduced from them. As we have seen, his unhappy experience at Tahiti had convinced Christian that he must seek for his future home an island which was uninhabited, unvisited, and without a harbor suitable for shipping. He would then land his belongings, including the livestock and plants, run the Bounty ashore and, after stripping her of everything useful, set her on fire and settle down (Edwards and Hamilton, 1915, p. 38). This much Christian freely imparted to those left behind on Tahiti. He would have been foolish to have mentioned any more specifically where he intended to go; but actually, while he already possessed a very clear idea of what he wanted, he did not then know himself where it could be found. His alleged statement to Henry Hillbrant that he intended to investigate the suitability of Atafu, an atoll in the Tokelau Group discovered by Byron in 1765, must, I think, be regarded as a blind, since the Bounty never went there: if so, it turned out to be a successful one, sending the unimaginative Captain Ed- wards, in H.M.S. Pandora, on a wild goose chase which took him thousands of miles in the wrong direction (Edwards and Hamilton, 1915, pp. 40, 45-46). Once Edwards had passed so far to the westward it was a moral certainty that he would not attempt to beat back against the trades to renew his search. From the two accounts left by Jenny and three separate statements made by Adams, none of which contains any major inconsistencies, it appears that after dropping the women off at Moorea it was pro- posed to prospect the Marquesas Islands, to the northeast of Tahiti, for a suitable location for the intended settlement. While this sug- gestion was being debated, the Bounty was kept on various tacks in the hope of sighting some uncharted and uninhabited island, ap- parently in the vicinity of Tahiti itself (Beechey, 1831, vol. 1, p. 80; Moerenhout, 1837, vol. 2, p. 292). Instead of settling in the Marquesas, however, Adams told Folger in 1808 that they “went in search of a group of islands, which you may remember to have seen on the chart placed under the head of Spanish discoveries. They crossed the situation of those imaginary isles, and satisfied themselves that none existed” (Folger, 1819, p. 265). This is, in fact, what I believe they did. It must be remembered that in 1790 the identification of the discoveries of Mendana and Quiros were still not recognized in England and they were generally considered to lie well to the west of their actual position. To quote Beaglehole: Dead reckoning had led Mendana to put his Western Isles 1,700 leagues from Peru; they were in reality 2,000 miles more distant. It was natural that by 1646 they should be incorporated into the Marquesas, that in the passage of time their supposed longitude should vary from 2,400 to 7,500 miles west of FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—MAUDE 551 Peru and even their latitude from 7° to 19° S. It was natural that Carteret should sail five degrees west of the position attributed to them in his own day and, not meeting them, utter his unbelief (Beaglehole, 1934, p. 384). The discovery of Rarotonga.—Unfortunately for us, Jenny was not particularly interested in the route taken by the Bounty and only mentions a visit to an island when it is associated with some incident that happened to excite her attention at the time. She describes how they sailed before the wind to the westward until— After many days a small island was discovered called by the natives Purutea. A canoe came off bringing a pig and cocoanuts with them. One of the natives ventured on board and was much delighted by the pearl-shell buttons on Captain Christian’s Jacket. The Captain in a very friendly manner gave the man the Jacket. He stood on the ship’s gunwale showing the present to his countrymen when one of the mutineers shot him dead. He fell into the Sea. Christian was highly indignant at this. He could do nothing more, having lost all authority, than reprimand the murderer severely: the other natives in the canoe im- mediately picked up their murdered companion, placed the body in the canoe and paddled towards the shore with loud lamentations. After several days more, saw one of the Tongataboo or Friendly Islands. . (Teehuteatuaonoa, 1826). Meager though this account is, it still enables us to establish, first, that Christian sailed west from the Society Group until he reached the Tongan Archipelago (we shall see later that the island visited there was most probably Tongatapu itself), and second, that he sighted at least one island between the two groups. A glance at the map, fur- thermore, will show that his route should have taken him right through the southern Cook Islands, the obvious inference being that Jenny’s Purutea must have been one of them. We do not have to be content with Jenny’s unsupported testimony for this inference, however, as there is confirmatory evidence from one of the Cook Group in the traditions of the islanders themselves (Gil- son, MS., 1952, pp. 14-16). This evidence comes from Rarotonga where the missionary John Williams, on his first visit there in 1823, was surprised to find that news of Captain Cook’s visits to Tahiti had already been brought by a party of men who had drifted from that island in a canoe, as well as by a mysterious woman (Williams, 1838, p. 106).18 Impressed by what they had heard, the Rarotongans petitioned the Gods to grant them a similar visit: O, great Tangaroa, send your large ship to our land; let us see the Cookees. Great Tangiia, send us a dead sea, send us a propitious gale, to bring the far- famed Cookees to our island, to give us nails, and iron, and axes; let us see these outriggerless canoes. 148 Her means of conveyance is not stated, but she may have been one of the two Tahitian women who came to Rarotonga with Goodenough (Gill, 1911, p. 193). 536608—60——37 552 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Williams records that— Not very long after this, a large ship did actually arrive; and from the description the natives gave me of her, I have no doubt but that it was the Bounty, after she had been taken by the mutineers. This vessel did not anchor, but one of the natives took his little canoe, and summoning all his courage, ventured to go on board. On returning to the shore, he told his astonished countrymen that it was a floating island; that there were two rivers of water flowing on it; that two large taro plantations, with sugar-cane, bread- fruit, and other trees, were growing there, that the keel scraped the bottom of the sea; for he dived as deep as man could go, and could not see its termina- tion. I account for these singular statements, by supposing that the pumps were at work while the man was on board, which he mistook for rivers, or streams, and that the two plantations, bread-fruit trees, etc., were the large boxes which were fitted. up throughout this vessel for those exotics, which it was the specific object of the Bounty to convey from Tahiti to the West Indies. From this vessel was obtained a pointed piece of iron, about two feet six inches in length, which the natives immediately dedicated to the gods... (Williams, 1838, pp. 201-202) .” An even more detailed account of this visit was later given by Maretu, a local authority on the early history of the island, who informed Dr. Wyatt Gill that Goodenough, who called at Rarotonga during the year 1814, was not its discoverer, since before him— There came here a very large ship, but the people did not land. Two canoes went off to that ship, and bartered some goods from the white people, amongst them the Anae; they purchased these things with fowls, coconuts, and bananas. As they left, a man named Maia stole a large box from the ship, and in it was found the orange and the motini. Makare was the name of the captain. One of the chiefs who went on board, named Tamarua, reported that they had taro swamps and young banana trees, besides young bread-fruit trees and many packages of anae, with stones also. They were wild with astonish- ment at that ship. It was from thence we obtained the first oranges, whilst Kaputini procured a mautini from there (Gill, 1911, p. 192) .” We have the authority of Stephen Savage, the Rarotongan scholar and translator of Maretu’s statement, that Makere is the Maori trans- literation of McCoy; motini (or mautinz) is the pumpkin and anae a species of fern, though it may also have had some other meaning in Maretu’s day. The “stones” referred to were thought to have been iron implements. 19 Basil Thomson, in quoting this passage, is apparently so concerned at its implications that he flatly accuses Williams of error, arguing that “the tradition must have referred to Bligh’s visit to Aitutaki before the mutiny when the decks were encumbered with bread- fruit, for we know that the first thing the mutineers did after setting their captain adrift was to throw all the bread-fruit plants overboard, and that they steered direct for Tahiti” (Edwards and Hamilton, 1915, pp. 40-41, footnote 2). A further example of the reluc- tance of historians to accept evidence tending to discredit the time-hallowed theory that the Bounty went straight from Tahiti to Pitcairn is mentioned in footnote 25. 2A MS. translation of Maretu’s autobiography in the Library of the Polynesian So- ciety states that the Rarotongans also obtained braces and belts from the ship, and recog- nized the mato (a tree that grew on their island) among the vegetation on board. No one came ashore “because of the rain” (Maretu, MS., 1949, p. 4). For Goodenough’s visit, which Gill wrongly thought had occurred in 1820, see the Sydney Gazette for Oct. 22, 1814. FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—-MAUDE 553 Both Williams and Wyatt Gill were under no doubt that Rarotonga had been visited by the Bounty, though not having the evidence we now possess Gill concluded that she called there immediately after the mutiny and on her way to Tahiti (Gill, 1911, p. 192).7* Gosset, who lived in the Cook Islands from 1899 to 1904, found a definite tradition among the older generations in Rarotonga that the Bounty had called; and Pa Maretu, then chief of Ngati-Tangia, assured him that the first orange trees on the island grew from the seeds of the fruit found in the stolen box (Gosset, 1940, pp. 9-10). But even if we admit the authenticity of the tradition of a ship’s call, was that ship necessarily the Bounty? I suggest that an analysis of the evidence, especially that relating to the cargo on board, indi- cates that it was. In the first place, an exhaustive search has established that only two vessels reported sighting Rarotonga before Goodenough’s visit, and both passed the island within a few months of the event.?? Of these, one had no contact with the shore, while the other was known to be short of provisions and would certainly not have given the appearance of a floating horticultural exhibition. In fact, even in the unlikely event of some other vessel calling and omitting to record the visit is it conceivable that she would be carrying a cargo of growing taro tubers, young banana shoots, and breadfruit trees, obviously plant material for an agricultural settlement on some South Sea (or at least tropical) island? But the Bounty was: for Morrison tells us that when Christian left Tahiti she was full of live- stock “together with plants of all the kinds that are Common in these Islands” and Jenny reports that on her arrival at Pitcairn the settlers set to work immediately planting the yams, taro, bananas and aute * which they had brought with them (Teehuteatuaonoa, 1819). That they did not need to plant the breadfruit trees, which Adams says they had also kept on board from Bligh’s plants, was only because there were found to be plenty already growing on the island. As regards the name McCoy,” although this is not a common name it can scarcely be regarded as sufficient proof of the visit in itself, but is valuable as supporting evidence. The fact that McCoy (one of the most refractory of the able seamen on the Bounty, who had caused trouble to both Bligh and Christian) was believed to be the captain is, of course, of no significance. In the intense excitement which must have prevailed on that brief visit to the first European ship ever seen, 21 Aaron Buzacott, missionary on Rarotonga from 1828 to 1857, thought the same (Cal- kin, 1953, pp. 49-50). 2The Endeavour (September or October 1813) and the Seringapatam (May 1814). *3'The paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera), from which the Tahitian brown cloth was made. *4The name is spelled Mickoy in the Bounty’s Muster Book and Pay Book, and by Bligh in his Log; elsewhere one finds it spelled variously M’Coy, M’Koy and McKoy. His de- scendants, however, have called themselves McCoy, and this has become the accepted usage. 504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 it is not surprising if a mistake was made on this point: McCoy was presumably the man with whom the informant spoke; was quite pos- sibly in charge of the watch at the time; and may well have conveyed the impression that he was in charge of the vessel. The Bounty, then, is the only ship believed to have visited Raro- tonga prior to 1820 without being in a position to have reported, and thus taken the credit for, such an important discovery; the only ship likely to have carried such an unusual cargo; and, with a lower degree of probability, the only ship with a European named McCoy on board. When one adds that, as we now know, her route would logically have taken her through the area in which the island is situated, it is hard to resist the conclusion that Christian was the rightful discoverer of Rarotonga. There remains the problem of Purutea. This island was almost certainly one of the Cook Group, though it cannot be found among the few local place names recorded, but the incident mentioned by Jenny is not recounted either by Williams or Maretu. All one can say, there- fore, is that Purutea could have been Rarotonga; but that from its position it could also have been Mauke, Atiu, or Mitiaro. It was not Palmerston Island, 270 miles to the northwest of Raro- tonga, where Captain Edwards found a yard marked “Bounty’s Driver Yard” and some spars with “Bounty” written on them, from which he at. first. concluded that the vessel had called there (Edwards and Hamilton, 1915, pp. 9, 43-44, 124). But as these were all lying on the beach at high-water mark, and worm-eaten from long immersion in the sea, they were clearly the spars lost while the Bounty was being warped up through the shallow lagoon at Tubuai when, as Morrison tells us: “After we had got about halfway, it became necessary to lighten the ship, by starting the Water; but that not being sufficient the Booms and Spars were got out and Moord at a Grapnel, but it coming on to blow fresh they went adrift and we saw them no more .. .” (Morrison, 1935, p. 55). Normal] set of wind and current could have easily taken them north- west to Palmerston. Tongatapu.—We have seen from Jenny’s narrative that from the Cook Group the Bounty continued to sail west until, several days later, she reached one of the Friendly Islands, where the mutineers traded with the Tongans for pigs, chickens, and yams. It is fortunately possible to identify, with a considerable degree of probability, the actual island at which they called, since Jenny men- tions that the natives told them that “Totee (Captain Cook) had been there, and that the horned cattle left by him were living” (Teehu- teatuaonoa, 1826) .”5 25 Mackaness, who cites Jenny, omits from his quotation the passages referring to the visit to Tongatapu, at the same time repeating the story of the Bounty sailing direct from Piteairn (Mackaness, 1931, pp. 209-211). FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—MAUDE 555 Cook did leave cattle in the Tongan Group, as Jenny says; on the island of Tongatapu itself, and nowhere else in the Western Pacific. And in leaving them he pointed out that “there were no such animals within many months sail of their island . . . that therefore they must be careful not to kill any of them, till they had multiplied to a numerous race” (Cook, 1785, vol. 1, p. 303. This was in 1777). There is every reason, therefore, to believe Jenny’s account of the Bounty’s visit to Tongatapu, where she says that they stayed 2 days. She is a reliable witness; and on all occasions on which it has been possible to check statements made in her two narratives they have proved to be both accurate and consistent. Furthermore, it is unlikely that she would have had any motive for inventing this particular story, with all its circumstantial detail; or, indeed, that she would have possessed the knowledge to do so. The only evidence against regarding Tongatapu as the island called at comes from a passage in the recently discovered Pipon MS., in which Adams informs Captain Pipon that Fletcher Christian— . after having left Otaheite the last time (for he visited Anamooka, one of the Friendly Islands, after his desertion from his duty, and disobedience to his Captain, not finding the reception he expected there, or rather that his plans could not be earried into execution without fear of detection) returned to Otaheite with a feigned story, which the Islanders readily gave ear to, of having met Captain Cook, who had sent him, “Fletcher,” for a supply of provisions . . . (Pipon, MS., 1814) .” While this involved and ambiguous sentence might conceivably be considered as confirmation of the Bounty’s visit to the Tongan Group after the mutiny, I do not believe that we can legitimately regard it as such, for the wording suggests that Pipon (either through a misunderstanding or being misinformed by Adams) has telescoped the vessel’s call at Nomuka (then known as Anamooka) just prior to the mutiny and the visit to Tubuai which succeeded it. Much of the other information obtained by Pipon from Adams is similarly garbled. It would seem, therefore, that Christian went in search of his islands by a route south of the track taken by previous discoverers on their way from Eastern to Western Polynesia; the exceptions, Cook in 1777 and Cox in 1789, who were both sailing in the opposite direction, had gone even farther to the south. This is not surprising, for it is logical to suppose that Christian would have taken a new route, since he knew that none of the Spanish islands, or any others suited to his purpose, lay in the areas already traversed, and to have gone farther north still would have taken him 28'The Pipon MS. has never been published in its entirety, though short extracts from it have been quoted by Barrow and others. The editor of the version published in the United Service Journal (1834, pp. 191-197) has unfortunately omitted many of the more {important passages relating to Christian, including the one quoted. On this point see Mackaness, 1931, pp. 216-219. 556 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 into the Tropics, not a propitious locality for permanent European settlement. It is interesting to note, however, that he was now almost back where he had started, for Tongatapu is less than 100 miles from Tofua, the island off which the mutiny had taken place 7 months before. The Lau Islands—After leaving Tongatapu the course was still set to the westward for “a few days,” after which they came upon a small, low island: Here Christian proposed to stop. The boat was sent on shore to ascertain whether the island was inhabited or not. Before they had time to land people were seen on the beach. After landing and remaining awhile on shore the boat returned to the ship with the news. Had this been an uninhabited island, Christian would have destroyed the ship and stayed there. Finding the inhabitants were numerous they sailed away that night to windward (Teehuteatuaonoa, 1826). This would appear to be the “low lagoon island, which they call Vivini, where they got birds, eggs and cocoa nuts,” mentioned in Jenny’s first narrative. The only small, low islands lying a few days sail to the westward of Tongatapu are the Southern Lau Group of Fiji, distant approxi- mately 220 miles and consisting of Vatoa, Ono-1-Lau, Tuvana-i-tholo, and Tuvana-i-ra. Of these only Vatoa and Ono-i-Lau possess lagoons, so that Vivini must have been one or other of these islands. The name cannot be traced anywhere in the Pacific: but this means little since most local place-names, including those on Vatoa and Ono- i-Lau, have never been published, and in any case it could be merely the Tahitian rendering of a name given by the mutineers. Its position rather favors Ono-i-Lau (lat. 20°39’ §.), as lying nearest to the parallel of 21° S. on which Christian appears to have been sailing since he left Rarotonga, and it had, at least in recent years, the larger population (586 as against 171, in 1936). On the other hand, Vatoa is the lower (209 feet as against 370 feet) and has a less intricate lagoon entrance for boats. The evidence, however, is too inconclusive for us to say with any confidence which of the two islands was visited by the Bounty, a pity because, while Vatoa was seen by Cook in 1774, Ono-i-Lau is not believed to have been discovered until 1820, when Bellingshausen sighted it.?7 Pitcairn’s Island—It was now toward the end of November; 2 months had passed since leaving Tahiti and the mutineers must have 21Tt appears that of Fiji’s historians only Sir Everard Im Thurn has discovered Jenny’s narrative and realized its significance. In his introduction to Lockerby’s Journal, Sir Everard quotes the appropriate portion (from the Bengal Hurkaru) and goes on to state that, in his opinion, it ‘“‘suggests with much probability, that the Bounty herself, after the mutiny and her subsequent return, under Christian, to Tahiti, actually touched at a Fijian island, and that this island, rather than Pitcairn, might have become the hiding place of the mutineers” (Im Thurn and Wharton, 1925, pp. XVITI—-XIX). FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—MAUDE 557 felt no nearer finding their future home than they had been when they started. As for the Isles of Solomon, they had proved as elusive as ever and Christian would have probably agreed cordially with Byron 25 years earlier, who gave up the search for them at Atafu in the Tokelaus (6° farther east) with the remark that “the only person who has pretended to have seen them is Quiros, and I doubt whether he left behind him any account of them by which they might be found by future navigators” (Kerr, 1811-24, vol. 12, p. 94). At all events, further search to the west was abandoned in the Southern Lau Group and the Bounty headed for the first time toward Pitcairn. It would be interesting to know at what stage of the voy- age Christian began to consider this island as a possibility; but one can imagine him seated in Bligh’s cabin anxiously thumbing through the many volumes of voyages known to have been on the shelves (Shillibeer, 1817, pp. 97-98). Among these was an edition of Hawkesworth’s Voyages, published in 1773, which contained this brief description by Carteret of his dis- covery, made in 1767: We continued our course westward till the evening of Thursday, the 2nd of July, when we discovered land to the northward of us. Upon approaching it the next day, it appeared like a great rock rising out of the sea: it was not more than five miles in circumference, and seemed to be uninhabited; it was, however, covered with trees, and we saw a small stream of fresh water run- ning down one side of it. I would have landed upon it, but the surf, which at this season broke upon it with great violence, rendered it impossible. I got soundings on the west side of it, at somewhat less than a mile from the shore, in twenty-five fathoms, with a bottom of coral and sand; and it is probable that in fine summer weather landing here may not only be practicable but easy. We saw a great number of sea-birds hovering about it, at somewhat less than a mile from the shore, and the sea here seemed to have fish. It lies in lat. 20°2’ south: long. 1383°21’ west. It is so high that we saw it at the distance of more than fifteen leagues, and it having been discovered by a young gentleman, son to Major Pitcairn of the marines, we called it PITCAIRN’S ISLAND (Hawkes- worth, 1773, vol. 1, p. 561. For a statement by Adams that Christian saw the account see Beechey, 1831, vol. 1, p. 80). The latitude given in this account is an obvious slip, for in his chart of Pitcairn Carteret states it to be in 25°02’ S. and 133°30’ W.: its actual position is 25°04’ S. and 1380°16’ W., or nearly 200 miles to the east of Carteret’s reckoning. Cook had passed close by, without sight- ing it, on his first voyage; and had again missed it on his second by being compelled, through an outbreak of scurvy, to make for Tahiti when only a few miles to the westward (Beaglehole, 1934, pp. 283, 322). To Christian the description of the high, tree-covered island, with its running water, apparently uninhabited and clearly difficult of ac- cess, must have appeared the solution to his troubles. But two more months were to pass before they sighted it; a weary period of tacking in the teeth of the southeast trades during which, Jenny says, “all on 558 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 board were much discouraged; they therefor thought of returning to Tahiti.” In one account Jenny speaks of no land being seen throughout the period, but in the other of passing “between two mountainous is- lands, but the wind was so strong they could not land” (Teehutea- tuaonoa, 1819): this would presumably be when returning through the Tongan Archipelago, the islands being most probably Hunga Ha‘abai and Hunga Tonga, some 30 miles to the north of Tongatapu and a bare mile apart. Moerenhout, writing of Mangareva Island (300 miles to the north- west of Pitcairn) after his visit there in 1834, says: The Indians speak of a vessel which long preceded that of Captain Beechey. They even show the spot where the ship anchored and remember having had a dispute with the crew in which several of the natives were killed. This ap- pears the more probable in that, before the arrival of the Blossom, the people of Mangareva had a knowledge of iron and cultivated water-melons, which are not indigenous to their island (Moerenhout, 1837, vol. 2, pp. 322-823). As no one has been reported to have landed at Mangareva before Beechey’s visit in 1825 in H.M.S. Blossom,* Hall has posited the sug- gestion that the Bounty called there en route to Pitcairn, leaving watermelon seeds and iron tools (Hall, 1935, pp. 37-389). If this had been so, however, I think that we should have heard of it, if not from Jenny then from John Adams, who knew that Beechey was going from Pitcairn in the direction of Mangareva and would surely have mentioned the fact had he been there himself. The iron and water- melon seeds can best be ascribed to the sealers and whalers known to have been in the area from 1817, and even earlier. No less than 19 ships are known to have called at Pitcairn before H.M.S. Blossom, while several others were sighted but did not stop: is it reasonable then, to suppose that not one ever visited an island so near? Much has been conjectured also on the supposed feat of finding such an incorrectly charted island as Pitcairn, and some authorities claim that Christian must have spent weeks in looking for it. But in point of fact, there should have been little difficulty, since Christian had only to run along the latitude, which was approximately correct, until it was sighted. This was on the 15th of January, 1790 ®°; in the evening, when the setting sun would have lighted up the heights of Goat-house Peak and the Ridge. It was boisterous weather, though midsummer, and the seas so rough that it was 3 whole days before they could attempt a landing (Teehuteatuaonoa, 1826). 28 Wilson, of the missionary ship Duff, the discoverer of Mangareva in 1797, only passed by the island. 22 This date is calculated from statements made by Jenny and Adams. The Bounty was burnt 8 days later, on January 28. FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—MAUDE 559 One can readily picture the tense expectancy of those last days off the island, as the little group of Europeans and Polynesians stood at the rail of the Bounty, speculating on its suitability for permanent settlement. Even from the sea they could discover coconut palms and breadfruit trees among the prevailing miro and purau, sure signs of former, if not present, inhabitants; it was resolved, therefore, to send a well-armed prospecting party to make an inspection before contem- plating any major disembarkation. As soon as the weather had moderated enough for a landing to be attempted, the boat was lowered and Christian, Brown, Williams, McCoy, and the three Tahitians rowed through the surf to the shore at what is now called Tedside, the alternative rough-weather landing place on the western coast. ‘The ship then stood out to sea.*° Two days later Christian was again taken on board. He returned, says Adams, “With a joyful expression such as we had not seen on him for a long time past” (Moerenhout, 1837, vol. 2, p. 293). The island had, in fact, exceeded his most sanguine hopes: in its fertility, its beauty, its temperate climate and, above all, in its now demonstrated inaccessibility, Pitcairn was ideal for his purpose. And, in addition, the race which had planted it ready for their use had apparently died out or departed, for the traces they found of their occupation were all old. The search was over: during the nine eventful months since the mutiny on the Bounty, Christian and his followers had seen much and done much; they had attempted the colonization venture at Tubuai, which even if a failure had given them invaluable experience and a knowledge of the necessary conditions for future success; they had crisscrossed the South Pacific three times, visiting the Society, Austral, Cook, Tonga, and Fiji Groups; they had discovered the important island of Rarotonga; they had searched in vain for the lost islands of Mendana and Quiros; they had acquired wives and an entourage; and now, after sailing over 7,800 miles from the day they left Bligh and Tofua, the mutineers had found their future home and the Bounty her last resting place. REFERENCES ATKIN, ee. 1930. Ethnology of Tubuai. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 70. Honolulu. BARNEY, STEPHEN. 1794. Minutes of the proceedings of the court martial held at Portsmouth 12th August, 1792 . . . London. Barrow, Sir JOHN. 1831. Eventful history of the mutiny, and piratical seizure of H.M.S. Bounty; its cause and consequences. London. (This is the first edition ; the best is in the World’s Classics, London, 1914.) %9 While they were away John Mills is said to have made an unsuccessful attempt to induce his companions to maroon them and return to Tahiti (Bennett, 1840, vol. 1, p. 46). 560 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. 1934. The exploration of the Pacific. London. BrEcHEY, Capt. F. W. 1831. Narrative of a voyage to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait. 2 vols. London. BELCHER, LADY DIANA. 1870. The mutineers of the Bounty and their descendants in Pitcairn and Norfolk Islands. London. BENNETT, F. D. 1840. Narrative of a whaling voyage round the globe, from the year 18383 to 1836. 2vols. London. Biieu, LirutT. WILLIAM. 1937. The log of the Bounty. 2 vols. London. Bropiz, WALTER. 1851. Piteairn’s Island and the islanders in 1850. London. BuFFETT, JOHN. 1846. A narrative of 20 years’ residence on Pitcairn’s Island. The Friend, vol. 4, pp. 2-8, 20-21, 27-28, 34-35, 50-51, 66-68. CartioT, A. C. EH. 1909. Les Polynesiens orientaux au contact de la civilization. Paris. 1910. Histoire dela Polynesie orientale. Paris. CALKIN, MI1Lo. 1953. The last voyage of the Independence. The story of a shipwreck and South Sea sketches 1833 to 1836. San Francisco. (Privately printed by Weiss Printing Co.) Cook, Capt. JAMES. 1785. Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, undertaken .. . for making discoveries in the N. Hemisphere .. . in 1776-1780. 3d ed., 8 vols. London. Epwarps, E., and HAmILron, G. 1915. Voyage of H.M.S. Pandora . . . London. ELLIS, WILLIAM. 1831. Polynesian researches. 2d ed.,4 vols. London. Fouger, MATTHEW. 1819. Letter to Amaso Delano. Quart. Journ. Sci. and Art., vol. 1, art. 8. GILL, WYATT. 1911. Extracts from Dr. Wyatt Gill’s papers, No. 18. The coming of Good- enough’s ships to Rarotonga in 1820. Journ. Polynesian Soc., vol. 20, pp. 191-195. Gitson, R. P. Administration of the Cook Islands (Rarotonga). MS. thesis for M. Se. (Economics), Univ. London, 1952. GosssEt, R. W. G. 1940. Notes on the discovery of Rarotonga. Australian Geogr., vol. 3, pp. 4-15. Hatt, JAMES NORMAN. 1935. Shipwreck. London. HAWKESWORTH, J. 1773. Account of the voyages... by Byron, Wallis, Carteret, and Cook. 3 vols. London. HENRY, TEUIRA. 1928. Ancient Tahiti. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 48. Honolulu. Im THURN, SIR EVERARD, and WHARTON, LEONARD C. 1925. The journal of William Lockerby ... Hakluyt Soc., ser. 2, vol. 52. London. FROM THE MUTINY TO PITCAIRN ISLAND—MAUDE 561 Kerr, R. 1811-24. General history and collection of voyages and travels . . . 18 vols. Edinburgh. KorzesBuE, OTTO VON. 1830. A new voyage round the world ...2vols. London. Lrg, Iba. 1920. Captain Bligh’s second voyage to the South Sea. London. MACKANESS, GEORGE. 1931. The life of Vice-Admiral William Bligh. Sydney. MARETU. Autobiography, tr. by Tai Tekeu. MS. in library of Polynesian Society, Wellington, N.Z., 1949. MorERENHOUT, J. A. 1837. Voyages aux Iles du Grand Ocean .. . 2 vols. Paris. MONTGOMERY, J. 1831. Journal of voyages and travels of the Rey. Daniel Tyerman and George Bennett. 2 vols. London. Morrison, JAMES. 1935. The journal of James Morrison, Boatswain’s mate of the Bounty. ... London. Mortimer, G. 1791. Observations and remarks made during a voyage to the Islands of .. . Otaheite, Sandwich Islands ...in the Brig Mercury, com- manded by Jobn Henry Cox, Esq. London. (Printed for the author. ) Murray, Rev. T. B. 1853. Pitcairn: the island, the people, and the pastor. London. Pron, Cart. P. Narrative of the state [sic] mutineers of H.M. ship Bounty settled on Pitcairn’s Island in the South Seas; in September, 1814. MS. in Mitchell Library, Sydney, Banks’ Papers—Brabourne Coll., vol. 1, pp. 17-51, 1814. (There is an abridged version in the United Serv- ice Journal, 1834.) RUTTER, OWEN, EDITOR. 1931. The court-martial of the Bounty mutineers. Edinburgh. SEALE, ALVIN. Narrative of trip to South Sea Islands, with notes on voyages, islands and people, 1901-1902. MS. in Bernice P. Bishop Museum library, Honolulu, 1902. SHAPIRO, Harry L. 1936. The heritage of the Bounty; the story of Pitcairn through six genera- tions. New York. SHILLIBEER, Ligvut. J. 1817. A narrative of the Briton’s voyage to Pitcairn’s Island. London. SmirH, D. BONNER. 1936. Some remarks about the mutiny of the Bounty. Mariner’s Mirror, vol. 22, pp. 200-237. TEEHUTEATUAONOA (OR JENNY). 1819. First narrative, published in the Sydney Gazette for July 17, and reproduced in the Liverpool Mercury for December 24. 1826. Second narrative, published in the Bengal Hurkaru for October 2, and reproduced in the United Service Journal, pt. 2, pp. 589-593, 1829. 562 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 WILLIAMS, JOHN. 1838. A narrative of missionary enterprises in the South Sea Islands. . . . London. WILSON, JAMES. 1799. A missionary voyage to the South Pacific Ocean, performed in the years 1796, 1797, 1798, in the ship Duff . . . London. Youna, ROSALIND A. 1894. Mutiny of the Bounty and story of Pitcairn Island, 1790-1894. Oakland, Calif. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. The Chinook Sign of Freedom: A Study of the Skull of the Famous Chief Comcomly By T. D. STEwarT Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology United States National Museum Smithsonian Institution [With 6 plates] November Vth [1805]. ... We had not gone far from this village [Wahkia- cums] when the fog cleared off, and we enjoyed the delightful prospect of the ocean—that ocean, the object of all our labors, the reward of all our anxieties .... November 20th. ...AS we went along the beach we were overtaken by several Indians, who gave us dried sturgeon and wappatoo-roots, and soon met several parties of Chinnooks returning from the camp. When we arrived there we found many Chinnooks; two of them being chiefs, we went through the ceremony of giving to each a medal, and to the most distinguished a flag. Their names were Comcommoly and Chillahlawil.—From History of the Ea- pedition under the Command of Lewis and Clark, by Elliott Coues (1893). . . . The process by which [head] deformity [among the Chinooks] is effected commences immediately after birth. The infant is laid in a wooden trough, by way of cradle. The end on which the head reposes is higher than the rest. A padding is placed on the forehead of the infant, with a piece of bark above it, and is pressed down by cords, which pass through holes on each side of the trough. As the tightening of the padding and the pressing of the head to the board is gradual, the process is said not to be attended with much pain. The appearance of the infant, however, while in this state of compression, is whim- sically hideous, and “its little black eyes,” we are told, “being forced out by the tightness of the bandages, resemble those of a mouse choked in a trap.” About a year’s pressure is sufficient to produce the desired effect, at the end of which time the child emerges from its bandages a complete flathead, and continues so through life. It must be noted, however, that this flattening of the head has something in it of aristocratical significancy, like the crippling of the feet among Chinese ladies of quality. At any rate, it is a sign of free- dom. No slave is permitted to bestow this enviable deformity upon his child; all the slaves, therefore, are roundheads.—From Astoria; or, Anecdotes of an Enterprise Beyond the Rocky Mountains, by Washington Irving (1849). 563 564 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Tue great majority of the North American Indians either died off, were killed, or became racially admixed and acculturated before they could be studied by physical anthropologists. This is particularly true of the Indians originally occupying the coastal regions of the United States, which naturally were the first parts settled. Thus, today much of our knowledge of the physical characteristics of these Indians has come from studies of skeletons. Yet rarely are skeletal remains identifiable beyond such general attributes as sex, age, and cultural affiliation. An exception is the skull of Chief Comcomly, subject of the present study. This specimen has unusually good doc- umentation and offers evidence of a distinctive culture trait, namely, intentional head flattening. Emphasis will be placed on the deform- ity, because this is a study in physical anthropology ; but the documen- tation is very valuable, as will become apparent. The above quotations, besides supplying the title and the first mention of Comcomly, are notable examples of the available documentation con- cerning this chief and the customs of his tribe. It is regrettable that space limitations will not permit the inclusion of many other such interesting and pertinent statements. The writer is indebted to Stanley P. Young, recently retired from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the In- terior, for calling to his attention the existence of Comcomly’s skull; to the Clatsop County Historical Society, Inc., of Astoria, Oreg., Otto Owen, president, and in particular to its corresponding secretary, Burnby M. Bell, for the loan of this skull; and to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for the loan of skull No. 462 of the Morton Collection (John K. Townsend’s Chinook “chief”). HISTORICAL BACKGROUND When in May 1841 Charles Wilkes, commander of the United States Exploring Expedition, visited the remnants of Astoria, the Astor establishment at the mouth of the Columbia River, he was taken to see the “tomb” of the Indian chief Comcomly.t. Known as “the hos- pitable chief,” Comcomly had been the leader of the Chinook tribe when Lewis and Clark arrived in the area in 1805; he had died during an epidemic in 1830 at an estimated age of 65 years.2 In reporting his visit Wilkes (1845, vol. 4, p. 343) gave a drawing of the “tomb” (pl. 1),3 and added, “The chief’s skull, it is believed, is in Glasgow, 1Many different spellings of the name appear in the literature. The spelling used in the Handbook of American Indians (Hodge, 1907, p. 329) has been followed here, being at the same time a simplified form of that given by Lewis and Clark (see epigraph). Other spellings include the following: Com-com-le, Te-cum-le, Comcomli, Com-com-mo- ley, Kum-kumly, Kom-komle (see Lewis and Murakami, 1923, footnote 46 on p. 74). Some- times the initial ‘‘m’”’ is changed to “n.” 2 This is based on Scouler’s (1905) estimate of Comcomly’s age in 1825 as 60 years. 8Three years later Father De Smet also visited the “tomb,” being perhaps the last to record a visit thereto (see Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, pp. 442-443). SKULL OF CHIEF COMCOMLY—STEWART 565 having been long since removed by Dr. Gardner [sic].” Actually, Dr. Meredith Gairdner, physician of the Hudson’s Bay Company at Fort Vancouver, had removed the skull in 1835, only 6 years before, and he himself had died of tuberculosis in the Hawaiian Islands the following year. Also, the skull was not in Glasgow, but in the Haslar Museum at the Royal Naval Hospital near Portsmouth, Eng- land, where it had been placed in 1838 by its recipient Dr. (later Sir) John Richardson, the famous explorer of the American Arctic and the founder of the museum. These facts are to be found in the museum’s records in the following form: Copy of correspondence relating to the skull of Comcomly Presented by Dr. Richardson Skull of Comcomly, Chief of the Chinook Nation inhabiting the Country at the mouth of the Columbia in North West America. It was sent to Dr. Richardson by Dr. Meredith Gairdner a young naturalist of great talent, known to the scientific world by several able papers on mineral and other subjects,* but who died prematurely of consumption at Oahu in the Sandwich Isles, shortly subsequent to the date of his letter of which the following is an extract. OaAHu, SANDWICH ISLES, 21st. November 1835. My Dear Sir, I wrote to you from the Columbia in Sept. last and merely add these few lines to inform you that the accompanying head in a small box is that of Comecomly the old Chief of the Chinook Nation at the mouth of the Columbia, who died four or five years ago. You may have heard of this character, for he is mentioned in most of the narratives relating to the Columbia. By his ability, cunning or what you please call it, he raised himself and his family to a power and influence which no Indian has since possessed in the districts of the Columbia below the first rapids 150 miles from the sea. When the phrenologists look at his frontal development what will they say to this? If I return to the Columbia I will endeavour to procure you the whole skeleton. I would readily have done so now were it not for my weak state of health; as it was my exertions in procuring the head cost me a severe paroxysm of haemoptysis. The mummy like state of preservation which dead bodies of the Indians attain is curious. After death they are not embowelled or rubbed with oil or any gummy substances; they are merely sometimes painted with ochre and water and wrapped in several folds of blankets; they are then deposited in a canoe which is placed on a stage elevated about 6 or 7 feet from the ground; they here attain the most perfect state of exsiccation, though very imperfectly sheltered from the weather (the climate is very wet for six months in the year). After remaining in this position for 3 or 4 years, as may be, the relatives remove them from the cance and deposit them in the ground. I assure you no small ressurrectionary labour was necessary to get at Comcomly’s. I remain, Dr. Sir, Yours Sincerely, MEREDITH GAIRDNER. “The Catalogue of Scientific Papers of the Royal Academy of Science (London) lists five papers under Gairdner’s name, of which three report geographical and meteorological observations made in America. 566 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 The original has the following device at the end of the letter: Comcomly’s history is partly given in Ross Cox’s travels and his fame has been more generally spread since his skull reached England by Washington Irving’s pleasing compilation of “Astoria.” Comcomly was one-eyed. His head reached England in the dried state mentioned by Dr. Gairdner, but with the features greatly distorted and pressed to one side. The moisture commenced to become very offensive in about 5 to 6 months, notwithstanding a liberal application of corrosive sublimate; it was maccerated and the brain removed. Haslar Museum 22nd. June 1838 (Vide letter book 1827-1847) The true location of Comcomly’s skull and the existence of the letter from Gairdner covering the transmission to Richardson were made known in 1939 by A. G. Harvey. But in 1940, during the bomb- ing of England, the Haslar Museum was destroyed, along with most of its collections. Comcomly’s skull (but unfortunately not his lower jaw) was one of the very few historic relics saved. Then, late in 1953, after extensive correspondence between the Haslar Museum authorities and Burnby Bell of the Clatsop County Historical Society of Astoria, Oreg., the skull was given to the latter institution and thus returned to the vicinity of the original “tomb.” If the odyssey of this skull had ended here, the present addition to the scientific record might not have been written. In 1956 the skull made still another trip away from its original resting place. This time, with the approval of the Council of the Chinook Nation, it crossed the North American Continent to the Smithsonian Institution, where it remained long enough for an anthropometric study to be made. Since that time the skull has been on display in the Historical Society’s museum in Astoria. So far as is known, this is the only Chinook skull which can be attributed to a known personage. Indeed, skulls of known Indians are very rare, much less those of historically important Indians. At this point, and in spite of the full history here outlined, the question might be raised as to how one can be sure that the skull studied at the Smithsonian in 1956 is the same one which Gairdner removed from the grave at Astoria in 1835, or indeed was that of Comcomly to begin with. This is a proper question and in line with what a court would wish to know about the sequence of possession of material evidence. Retracing the sequence in this instance we may assume that Gairdner was certain of the identity of Comcomly’s grave. After all, Comcomly had been dead only five years and at first, following Chinook custom, his body had been in an elevated canoe. “Later, for greater security, his body [had been] taken out of the canoe by relatives and placed in a long box in a lonely part SKULL OF CHIEF COMCOMLY—STEWART 567 of the woods” (Lewis and Murakami, 1923, footnote 46, pp. 76-77).° Gairdner does not mention a box, only the canoe; and he adds that sometimes (“as may be”) burial in the ground occurred 38 or 4 years after death. The implication is that this had happened to Comcomly and that digging had been the “ressurrectionary labour” required to obtain the skull. In any case the identity and location of the remains undoubtedly would have been well known in a community as small as Astoria was in 1835. Transference of the skull from moribund Gairdner in Oahu to the Haslar Museum in England via Richardson in 1835-88 is attested by the documents cited. The essential information was inscribed on the skull itself (pl. 2) probably at the time of its receipt at the museum, judging from a comparison of the inscription and the orig- inal museum record. Also, according to Harvey (1939, p. 166), “a copy [of Gairdner’s letter of transmittal] was discovered by Sir Mervyn Bunbury during the summer of 1938, screwed up and tucked away inside the skull, where it had been hidden for a hundred years.” If all this were not enough to ensure the identity of the skull and to prove that no substitution had occurred during the many years that have elapsed since its exhumation, the unusual form of the skull also provides some supporting evidence. It will be recalled that Gairdner asked the following question of Richardson: “When the phrenologists look at [Comcomly’s] frontal development what will they say to this?” As plates 3 and 4 show, the skull vault exhibits extreme artifi- cial deformity—‘the Chinook sign of freedom.” Although, with the exception of Gairdner’s question, eyewitness statements that Com- comly had a flattened head are lacking, most of the early narratives point out that the Chinook practiced intentional head deformation. The epigraph from Washington Irving’s book is an example. Ob- viously, the shape of Comcomly’s skull confirms this account of Chinook custom and thereby makes the possibility of later substitution quite unlikely. To return to Gairdner’s question, the skull probably never was examined by a phrenologist. But an indirect and incomplete answer to his question exists in the literature on phrenology. By coincidence, John K. Townsend, the Philadelphia ornithologist,’ visited Fort George (Astoria) in September 1836, just about a year after Gairdner’s departure for the Hawaiian Islands. While there he obtained, among 5Ray (1938, p. 75) interprets Wilkes’s illustration of Comcomly’s “tomb” (pl. 1) as an “elevated box interment,” basing this opinion, not on a contemporary record, but on the form of the structure and on an earlier report that boxes were sometimes used in place of canoes (Vancouver, 1798, p. 54). (See also footnote 7.) 6 Townsend later worked for the National Institute, the forerunner of the U.S. National Museum, and some of the birds that he collected at the mouth of the Columbia River are preserved in the latter museum. 536608—60—_38 568 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 others, the deformed skull of a Chinook “chief,” ? which he sent to his friend and fellow townsman Samuel G. Morton, the father of American physical anthropology. In planning his monumental “Crania Americana” (1839), in which this Chinook skull appears as plate 48, Morton took into account the methods of the then new science of phrenology, giving a series of measurements taken according to that system. However, Morton did not feel qualified to evaluate the meas- urements, and George Combe, whose essay on phrenology is included in the book, states only generalities without reference to particular crania. It is noteworthy, on the other hand, that Morton segregated the phrenological measurements of the “Flatheads of Columbia river,” seemingly implying thereby some doubt as to whether phrenological principles applied in such cases. Be this as it may, it is amusing, now that phrenology is discredited, to see how the deformed skull of Townsend’s Chinook “chief” rated in comparison with the normally shaped skull of a Swiss (pp. 268, 277) : Chinook Swiss Chinook Swiss Amativeness) 22225222 5222=- 2a y et LO CHLityes se a = ees 4.1 4.5 Philoprogenitiveness ~_---_ 8.2 38.6] Benevolence _--___-_-___- 4.1 5.0 INdhesiveness|=2 222s S25 S900 4.4 | (Causalityo es ee os eee 8.95 4.8 Self-esteem= 2's ees Zh Gy GE} a bvehhwGh el iin = 8.85 4.4 Approbativeness_-_.----_~ 41650. “40 (Orders. 32-28 2 eee 3.75 4.2 Mirmness==22 esse eee: 4° “5; ©)|| Secretiveness ==——=-—=-—— = o.2. a4 Conscientiousness_______-_- 456 142.9) |(Cautlousness 2222 ae 4.4 4,55 Veneration £25 320 4.4 5.0] Destructiveness__________ 2. (ae 2585 HO pect sees hy as tael la 4.3 4.8] Combativeness___________ S16) as Marvelousness_____.__—___ 4.05 4.9 Is it because of the deformity that the Chinook rates below the Swiss in every item of this list, except the last—combativeness ? After this diversion, it is desirable to return once more to John Townsend and Samuel Morton. Because of the friendship between 7™Townsend’s accompanying memorandum (Morton, 1839, pp. 208-209) reads as fol- lows: “The skull of the Chinouk is that of a high chief, as was manifest in the superior style in which his canoe was decked out, the unusual fineness of the wrappings with which the body was covered, and the evident care and attention which had been bestowed on the whole arrangement.” Townsend (1839, pp. 255-256) records the visit to the cemetery as follows: “30th [September].—I visited to-day some cemeteries in the neighborhood of the fort, and obtained the skuils of four Indians. Some of the bodies were simply deposited in on stakes driven into the earth. In these instances it was not difficult to procure the eanoes, raised five or six feet from the ground, either in the forks of trees, or supported skulls without disarranging the fabric; but more frequently, they were nailed in boxes, or covered by a small canoe, which was turned bottom upwards, and placed in a larger one, and the whole covered by strips of bark, carefully arranged over them. It was then necessary to use the utmost caution in removing the covering, and also to be careful to leave every thing in the same state in which it was found.... “The corpses of the several different tribes which are buried here, are known by differ- ence in the structure of their canoes; and the sarcophagi of the chiefs from those of the common people, by the greater care which has been manifested in the arrangement of the tomb.” Considering that Townsend was acquainted with Gairdner (cf. pp. 229, 233), it is sur- prising that he makes no mention here of the latter’s visit to Comcomly’s grave. For that matter it is more surprising that he does not mention Comcomly. SKULL OF CHIEF COMCOMLY—STEWART 569 =£ z \ ! a “ . iv A on : : nl aE tl ue ll | Kf 4a Minn H if ve nT all 7 Fil f a i i Pee : en Ld “ vias < a aie va ita ole \ hy m : mn il mM l im, a M > mi TTT arn TE Ii | (mn TT i at Ml i a a i i i | | Figure 1.—Chinook cradle collected by John K. Townsend during his visit to the mouth of the Columbia River in 1835-36. It was “formed by excavating a single piece of wood about three feet long. Midway between the top and bottom, inside, are little slats of light wood, A,A,A, in a transverse direction, on which are placed a grass matorbed. The head of the cradle, B, is an excavated chamber, bounded towards the foot by an inclined plane, D, the rounded margin of which supports the child’s neck, while the head itself is received into the concavity at B. Attached)to the)side of the cradle is the pad, C, made of grass, with a loop at the end: this is dwn down over the child’s forehead, keeps it in place, and causes the flatness of that part so universal in these people. The lateral loops, D,D,D, are for the purpose of keeping the child’s body in a fixed position, The project- ing end, E, is rounded, and answers for rocking the cradle, when poised on it, by a rotary motion ‘applied at the opposite end. The head and neck rest on a grass mat or pillow” (Morton, 1839, p. 204). these two men we have not only the earliest anthropometric descrip- tion of a Chinook skull, but also probably the earliest illustration (fig. 1) of the type of cradle which Washington Irving mentions (see epigraph) as being responsible for the Chinook cranial deformity.® This particular cradle, which seems to have been overlooked in the literature on the Chinook (cf. Ray, 1938, pp. 69-70; Underhill, 1945, pp. 128-130), is pertinent here mainly because the skull described by Morton, like Comcomly’s, is deformed. This is consistent with the claims of Townsend for his specimen. Incidentally, the Townsend cradle is one of two types of deforming apparatus employed by the Chinook. The other type, sketched by Lewis and Clark (see Ray, 1938, fig. 3) and later painted by Catlin (Donaldson, 1886, pl. 42), employed a hinged flattening board to compress the head in much the same manner as a nutcracker is used. Morton made no special effort to describe the deformities exhibited by the specimens he was reporting, being content apparently to let the illustrations speak for themselves.? In the case of Townsend’s 8 Although the skull is still preserved in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel- phia, its presence there having been noted in 1857 by Meigs, the cradle is not in that insti- tution and its present location had not been discovered at the time of this writing. ® Morton made his drawings by means of a craniograph devised by his friend John S. Phillips (for illustration, see Morton, 1839, p. 294). It consisted of a board 6 feet long and 1 foot wide with a short upright piece attached at each end. The skull, which was posed against one of these uprights, was viewed through a small hole in the other upright. Between the skull and eyepiece, but only 15 inches from the latter, was a Square frame holding a piece of glass. The outline of the skull was traced on this glass, yielding a reduction to one quarter. From the glass the outline was transferred to paper and perfected. Later an artist redrew the picture on lithographic stone. 570 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 “chief” (pl. 5), he succeeded in getting a fairly accurate lateral profile, but was less successful in the placement of the features within this outline. No other aspects of the skull were illustrated, so these are given here for the first time in the form of photographs (pl. 6). Im- perfect though it is, Morton’s single illustration constitutes the first description of Chinook deformity based on a skull known to have come from an early 19th-century elevated canoe interment. This fact has been generally overlooked or ignored, because credit is given to Boas (1891), rather than to Morton, for defining the Chinook type of deformity (cf. Oetteking, 1930, pp. 16-17; Dingwall, 1931, p. 163 ff.). By the time Boas came along, of course, it was possible to draw broad conclusions on this subject. However, Boas defined the Chi- nook deformity type simply from skulls attributed to this tribe. The recovery of deformed skulls from the area traditionally occupied by a tribe undoubtedly provides strong evidence regarding the type of deformity practiced there, but the evidence provided by a historically documented skull, and especially one collected before acculturation has made much headway, establishes the fact much more convincingly. With this in mind, and if for no other reason than to supplement and substantiate Morton’s classic report, a description of Comcomly’s skull now is in order. CRANIOMETRY Having said so much about deformity, it is desirable to take up first the analysis of this trait. For this purpose I will use a combina- tion of the Klaatsch (1909) and Oetteking (1930) schemes of lines and angles. Figure 2 shows a stereographic drawing of Comcomly’s skull treated in this fashion and, for comparison, a similar rendition of the skull of Townsend’s “chief” (hereafter referred to as No. 462). Most students follow the Klaatsch scheme alone in describing cranial deformities, but so far as the Northwest coast is concerned, Oette- king’s (1930) elaboration of this scheme cannot be ignored, especially since it gives a basis for judging variability. In spite of the existence of such schemes, there is still no general agreement on the lines and angles best suited for characterizing deformity. This being the case, and not wishing to overly complicate the drawings, I will report also a few details not illustrated. For example, the frontal bone being essentially the area between the land- mark glabella (G) and bregma (Br), the amount of frontal flattening may be represented by the ratio of the frontal chord length (G—Br) and the maximum distance between this chord and the frontal profile (measured vertical to the chord). The same is true of the parietal (Br-L) and occipital (L-B) areas. SKULL OF CHIEF COMCOMLY—STEWART 571 Ficure 2.—Stereographic drawings of the skulls of Comcomly (upper) and of Townsend’s Chinook “‘chief,”? No. 462 in the Morton Collection, Academy of Natural Sciences, Phil- adelphia (lower). The added lines are based on Klaatsch and Oetteking craniotrigono- metric schemes. 572 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 With this explanation it should be clear that table 1 combines angles and ratios derived from figure 2 with whatever comparative data is supplied by Oetteking. Since the latter has confirmed Boas’s finding that within the Northwest coast complex of deformity types “Chi- nook” differs markedly from “Cowichan” and “Koskimo,” this table shows (1) that the Chinook tribe really practiced the general type of deformity thus designated, and (2) that the Chinook cradles did not mould the head uniformly. Of course, infants’ heads differ to begin with, and handmade cradles vary in their proportions and details, so it should come as no surprise that head flattening within a tribe varies In intensity. TaBLE 1.—Angles and ratios derived from the Klaatsch-Oetteking craniotrigonometric scheme (fig. 2) “Chinook” ranget Angle or ratio Com- | No. 462 No. comly 4473* Male Female a Degrees | Degrees | Degrees | Degrees | Degrees Central angle of Klaatsch__-_-_ 94 99 *101 93-105 | 93-107 AnaleaVNin ons ee- eee sees 32 35 sak | | A HS ees ATI LORVIGB cee ae eee eae 82 93 278) ee a ae ee | eee ANGI; VSI ea". seen es oo ae 54 61 750! [oo o8 oe see Angle'of Gh; to BH’ ..2 222-22 11 19 fia: 7-18 8-19 Angle‘of B Brito WH’-2 2222 83 79 £90 78-92 79-93 Angle of NIB to/ Bil’ 2 Ness 22 28 23 $28 | 23-35 25-35 Angle of BO to EE’_---___-- 13 1 t—2 |+14--—15 |+-7-—10 Angle of NBr to EE’_______-_ 46 49 t44 40-55 38-53 AnglerofG Bros’. 24-5 Se ile 10 {20 13-33 10-29 Angle of OL to EE’_-____-_-- 118 103 $120 | 105-130 |102-123 Frontal height ratio. ______-- 10. 8 ihik, ¢ ZO (5012. Parietal height ratio.______-- 29.9 20. 0 FOZ Ml | eee oe ae | See Occipital height ratio. ______- 28. 1 43.6 t2ANSNC 2 ae ee *Oetteking, 1930, fig. 1, p. 19 of text; an adult (?) female. {Oetteking, 1930, p. 78 of table of measurements; 58 males, 26 females (not all measurable). tOetteking, 1930, p. 76 of table of measurements. Table 2 adds many of the standard measurements and indices for Comcomly and No. 462 and includes, for comparison, Oetteking’s “Chinook” ranges. Both skulls fall within his male range, but No. 462 tends to be in the lower part of this range. Indeed, were it not for the documentation and the evidence that Oetteking regarded many of his small skulls as males, I would be disposed to doubt the sex identification of No. 462. I have no such doubts regarding the sex of Comcomly’s skull. Does Comcomly’s skull tell anything about his age? Plates 3 and 4 show that the joints between the bones of the vault (sutures) are still visible, but are bridged over in many places. Significantly, the SKULL OF CHIEF COMCOMLY—STEWART 573 masto-occipital sutures, usually about the last to close, are no longer visible. This could mean that Comcomly was as old as estimated: 65. Age is reflected also in the teeth. Indians lived on a coarse diet which tended to wear down their teeth rapidly. Comcomly’s upper teeth are well worn, so that all those present have a large exposure of dentin. The second molars were lost antemortem, either from caries or from destruction of the supporting bone (pyorrhea). In general, all this suggests an age somewhat below 65. The possibility exists, therefore, that Scouler was misled in estimating Comcomly’s age by the general Indian tendency to age rapidly. In this connection it is interesting to note that No. 462 has open masto-occipital sutures and no tooth loss, but more wear of the front teeth. This “chief” could have been around 40 to 50 years of age. TaBLE 2.—Standard measurements of Comcomly’s skull with comparative data “Chinook” range* Measurement or index Comcomly}] No. 462 Male Female Cranialicapacitye= see eaee= 1,340 ce__}| 1,175 ece__} 1,150—1,630 | 1,020—-1,390 Maximum length of vault___| 170 mm_-_} 168 mm__]| 155-182 148-166 Maximum breadth of vault__] 161 mm__} 150 mm__| 143-170 138-161 Cramialeind exes as OF Gea a Li ae eae 81.6-108.4 83.1-102.3 Basion-bregma height - __--- 121 mm_-_} 117 mm__| 115-145 102-134 Mean height index____---_-- (icp sae ae UENO A ee 70.9-89.8 63.8—85.3 Minimum frontal diameter__| 100 mm__| 99 mm-_-_-_ 89-109 86-102 Basion=nasiony 4522252428 Ory maine n |) Oy aan — 87-107 80-103 Basion-prealveolar point .--|/ 102 mmen|-107 mm. “|S. Ses 2eess|-- eels Nasion-alveolar point__--_--- (9mm 2_| «4 mm: — 68-83 62-78 Racialvangles 24at 22222 e - Ogee Gi 5 oe ees | ee ee oe te ee ee ee Diameter bizygomatic max- yay De a eee err hh SO ee eS 150 mm__} 1836 mm__}| 133-151 123-140 Upper facial index_______-- Oeay sess Oe eee 46.8-67.6 47.7-66.8 Nasaliheici (= a= een 53 mm___| 50.5 mm_ 48-60 44-57 INasaljbreadt hae sa" sees 24 mm___| 28 mm_-_-_ 20-29 20-26 Nasal ee sired ateh agape AorBart ls Ls bogs exe 36.2-58.0 38.6-66.8 rbital breadth, right_--__-_ 40 mm___}] 41 mm__- % ean prea leftwes ee 39 mms. |) 4 emma 37-45 35-43 rbital height, right________ 36 mm___| 38 mm__-_ “ te Orbital height, left__..__-__ 3555 mm | 38 mimi. |e o. > el Orbital index, mean_______-_ 903 e a2 OOM aya aye 82.2-102.6 82.0-102.9 Posterior interorbital width_}| 29 mm___| 25 mm_-_~_ 19-29 18-26 External alveolar length____}| 56 mm___} 54 mm___ 49-60 46-58 External alveolar breadth___} 68 mm___| 66 mm__-_ 61-73 58-68 External alveolar index____-_ TBH A |) TIRE OS Oe IO feu yor) 110.9-141.7 Foramen magnum length___] 33 mm_-_-_| 33 mm_-- 28-41 30-36 Foramen magnum breadth__}| 30 mm___} 27 mm_-_- 27-35 26-32 Foramen magnum index____} 90.9___-- SS 73.7—100.0 83.9-100.0 *Oetteking, 1930, pp. 32-35, 78-79 of the tables of measurements; 58 males, 26 females (not all measurable). EPILOGUE Now that the contribution of Comcomly’s skull to anthropology has been established, it is necessary to return to the historical narratives 574 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 for a fitting conclusion of this account. It will be recalled that Com- comly met Lewis and Clark and their party, the first of the stream of white men to descend the Columbia River. Before and after this he saw many ships approach or enter the mouth of the river. How he must have wondered about the world beyond the mountains on one side and the sea on the other! He was not destined, of course, to travel so far in life; only his skull traveled. But then, maybe he transmitted some of his longings for travel, or at least for information about foreign lands, to his descendants. One can almost imagine this to be so, because the remarkable adventure of his grandson that will now be outlined is well documented (Lewis and Murakami, 1923). In 1823 the youngest daughter of Comcomly, then still in her teens, married Archibald McDonald *° of the Hudson’s Bay Company and soon had a son whom they named Ranald McDonald. The father apparently saw to it that Ranald did not receive the traditional Chinook “sign of freedom.” But this does not mean that the boy was not free, at least to travel. In 1834 he was sent to school in the Red River Settlement in what is now Manitoba, Canada; and in 1839 he was sent to St. Thomas in southeastern Ontario to work in a bank. Bank work did not suit Ranald, but apparently it did foster thoughts of further travel: this time to Japan, of all places. Japan, it will be recalled, was closed to outsiders in the early 19th century. During his childhood Ranald had seen Japanese sailors who had been shipwrecked along the Pacific coast near the mouth of the Columbia. Memories of this recurred to him now when he heard about the Japanese Decrees of Exclusion. Together they proved so tantalizing to a boy of 21 that Ranald gave up his job in the bank and started off for the Orient. From Canada he worked his way down the Mississippi to New Orleans and from there somehow reached New York. Late in 1845 he “shipped before the mast” on the Plymouth bound for the Sandwich Islands. Finding that the ship was going on from there to Hong Kong, Ranald talked the captain into agreeing to put him adrift in a small boat off the coast of Japan. Thus it came about in June 1848 that Comcomly’s grandson found himself on an island off the northwest coast of Hokkaido (or Yezo). The inhabitants of this part of Japan were Ainu and they treated Ranald very kindly. Nevertheless, Japanese law required that his presence be reported. This led to a series of interrogations in various places ending 10 months later in Nagasaki. During this time, in spite of being confined in somewhat cramped quarters, Ranald conducted a class in English for 14 government interpreters. In the process he himself learned a sort of pidgin Japanese. On April 26, 1849, 10 The family preferred to spell their surname McDonald rather than MacDonald. SKULL OF CHIEF COMCOMLY—STEWART 575 he was delivered to the American authorities. He returned home by way of Australia. An interesting sidelight on Ranald’s adventure is the fact that one of the students in his English class was Moriyama Einosude, who served as the principal interpreter for the Japanese Commissioners during Commodore Perry’s negotiations on his second visit to Japan. In this indirect fashion we get a suggestion of the qualities that made Comcomly a great chief. The present-day Chinook, like Ranald McDonald, do not have, nor do they need, the “sign of freedom.” They have no reason, however, to be ashamed that Comcomly bore this “sign.” LITERATURE CITED Boas, FRANZ. 1891. Second general report on the Indians of British Columbia. Rep. 60th Meeting British Assoc, Adv. Sci. (Leeds, 1890), pp. 647-655. CHITTENDEN, HigAM MARTIN, and RICHARDSON, ALFRED TALBOTT. 1905. Life, letters and travels of Father Pierre-Jean De Smet, S8.J., 1801-1873. Vol. 2. New York. Cours, ELLIOTT. 1893. History of the expedition under the command of Lewis and Clark, ete. Vol.2. New York. Cox, Ross. 1832. Adventures on the Columbia River, including the narrative of a resi- dence of six years on the western side of the Rocky Mountains, among various tribes of Indians hitherto unknown, ete. New York. DE SMET, PIERRE-JEAN. (See Chittenden and Richardson.) DINGWALL, Eric JOHN. 1931. Artificial cranial deformation; a contribution to the study of ethnic mutilations. London. DONALDSON, THOMAS. 1886. The George Catlin Indian gallery in the U.S. National Museum (Smithsonian Institution), with memoir and statistics. Ann. Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1885, pt. V, 989 pp. (Jn Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1885, pt. IT.) Harvey, A. G. 1989. Chief Concomly’s skull. Oregon Hist. Quart., vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 161-167. Hopcr, FREDERICK WEBB (Hditor). 1907. Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull, 30, pt. 1. IgvING, WASHINGTON. 1849. Astoria; or, ancedotes of an enterprise beyond the Rocky Mountains. Vol. 8 of “The Words of Washington Irving,” 1855 ed. KLAATSCH, HERMANN, 1909. Kraniomorphologie und Kraniotrigonometrie. Arch. fiir Anthrop., n.S., VOL. 8, pp. 101-128. LEWIS AND CLARK. (See Coues, Elliott.) Lewis, WILLIAM §., and MurAKAMI, Naogrro (Hditors). 1923. Ranald MacDonald: The narrative of his early life on the Columbia under the Hudson’s Bay Company’s regime, etc. Spokane, Wash. 536608—60——39 576 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Metcs, J. AITKEN. 1857. Catalogue of human crania in the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 8 for 1856, Suppl., 112 pp. Morton, SAMUEL GEORGE. 1839. Crania americana; or, a comparative view of the skulls of various aboriginal nations of North and South America, ete. Philadelphia. OETTEKING, BRUNO. 1930. Craniology of the North Pacific coast. Publ. Jessup North Pacific Exped. (Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.), vol. 11, pt. 1, ix+391 pp. of text, 93 pp. of tables, 11 pls. Ray, VERNE F, 1938. Lower Chinook ethnographic notes. Univ. Washington Publ. An- throp., vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 29-165. ScouLer, Doctor JOHN. 1905. Journal of a voyage to N. W. America. Quart. Oregon Hist. Soc., vol. 6, p. 167. TOWNSEND, JOHN K. 1839. Narrative of a journey across the Rocky Mountains, to the Columbia River, etc. Philadelphia. UNDERHILL, RUTH. 1945. Indians of the Pacific Northwest. U.S. Indian Service, Indian Life and Customs Pamph. No. 5, 232 pp. VANCOUVER, CAPTAIN GEORGE. 1798. A voyage of discovery to the North Pacific Ocean, and round the world; in which the coast of North-west America has been carefully examined and accurately surveyed, ete. Vol. 2. London. WILKES, CHARLES. 1845. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842. Vol. 4. Philadelphia. PLATES PLATE 1 Smithsonian Report, 1959—Stewart "eHe “d ‘fp Joa ‘uounpadxg Sursojdxy sawig panuy ays fo 7aU1DddV NT SSOATLM SO[TeYD OF JoyONT, “Y “AA Aq poavssua pue [FQ] ul ae8y 7, “‘y Aq payoqays «¢ PHOISVW “quio} s,ATautosuOD,, Smithsonian Report, 1959—Stewart PLATE 2 Hep Inscription, slightly retouched, on Comcomly’s skull, probably dating from 1838 when the skull was deposited in the Haslar Museum, England, by Dr. John Richardson. The following can be clearly deciphered: Museum Haslar/Skull of Comcomly Chief/of the Chinook Nation/N.W. America/[Pres]ented by/—{RiJchardson. Smithsonian Report, 1959—Stewart PLATE 3 Front, left side, and top views of Comcomly’s skull oriented in the Frankfort position. Smithsonian Report, 1959—Stewart PLATE 4 Bottom, right side, and back views of Comcomly’s skull oriented in the Frankfort position. PLATE 5 Smithsonian Report, 1959—Stewart phen t900 oo ue, eseetm teste mee, garteeet’ Upper right: Lithographic drawing of Townsend’s Chinook “‘chief” reversed and reoriented in the Frankfort position (Morton, 1839, pl. 43). Middle left: Photograph of same skull (without lower jaw). The zygomatic arch is deformed by an old frac- ture. The styloid process has been broken off. Bottom: Superimposed outlines of photograph (dotted line) and drawing (solid line) with glabella and the Frankfort horizontal coinciding. Smithsonian Report, 1959—Stewart PLATE 6 Front, left side, and top views of the skull collected by John K. Townsend in 1836 (No. 462 of the Morton Collection, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia). (See pl. 5 for view of right side.) Orientation in Frankfort position. The Muldbjerg Dwelling Place: An Early Neolithic Archeological Site in the Aamosen Bog, West-Zealand, Denmark’ By J. TROELS-SMITH The National Museum, Denmark [With 6 plates] For Many years peat litter had been harrowed for briquettes in the large Aamosen bog in West-Zealand (figs. 1 and 2), when one day the teeth of the harrow raked up some potsherds and a number of flint flakes. These objects, which were lying on the vast brown surface, gave evidence of a Neolithic dwelling place. In the period that followed, and during the excavation which went on through several years, it was found that this dwelling place was one of unusual importance. Here the oldest traces of grain and weeds, as well as the oldest bones of domestic cattle and sheep in Denmark, were found. The following will describe the investigations step by step in order to show how the individual parts of the puzzle—if understood and interpreted correctly—unite into a picture of the dwelling place and the landscape, the people and the animals, and the whole life of a dwelling place as far as a reconstruction has been possible. The investigations were carried out by the Department of Natural Sciences, the National Museum, Copenhagen. INVESTIGATIONS IN THE FIELD EXCAVATION OF THE DWELLING PLACE Initially two trial trenches were dug across the site in the form of across. In this way the first information on extent and stratigraphy was obtained. As the preliminary results had been promising, fur- ther investigations were planned. ‘The fieldwork was begun in 1951. 1A condensed translation of original article in Danish, which appeared in Naturens Verden, July 1957, and is here reprinted by permission of the publishers. 577 578 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Figure 1.—The location of the Aamosen bog, West-Zealand, Denmark. The area marked with a square is shown enlarged in figure 2. One of the greatest difficulties connected with excavations in bogs is the high water level. Therefore, the most practical thing to do is to drain the area under investigation by digging a system of trenches all around it. In case it is a larger settlement, it may be divided into a number of blocks which can be examined one after another (pl. 1). The purpose of an excavation is not only to bring to light the vari- ous artifacts, flint tools, potsherds, etc., but also to find out how they lie in relation to each other and to make all other possible observa- tions. Planning and carrying out such an excavation are difficult for two reasons: (1) During the excavation and investigation the site itself is destroyed, and observations not made in the course of the excavation work will be irrevocably lost. (2) Every excavator works with a certain fund of knowledge and a certain expectation of what he may find and observe, with the result that some of the things sought are found, while others which are also sought are not. In conduct- ing an excavation, it is essential to let imagination work upon the MULDBJERG DWELLING PLACE—TROELS-SMITH 579 Kalundborg\Q NN B 6 O\Nyborg KorsarQ Q) Skelsker LO Ne) Ficure 2.—The Muldbjerg dwelling place, situated in the 8,000-acre Aamosen bog. The solid circle indicates the location of the dwelling place. observations in an effort to see things which have not yet been demon- strated, and in particular to record objectively and faithfully every- thing found or observed independent of whether, at the time of the excavation, it fits into present theories. This means that the work must be performed in such a way that it will be possible later on to prepare detailed maps and sections showing not only the exact position of the objects found but also the different layers and all other observations made during the excavation. During the excavation a record is kept in which every object found is numbered consecutively. (So far 33,231 numbered items have been excavated at Muldbjerg.) Each item is classified: Nut shell, flint chip, awl, piece of bark, etc., and the coordinates and level of each are recorded. All the objects are then provided with a tag carrying the number of the object, and are wrapped in paper. The finds are gathered daily in small bags (pl. 2, fig. 1). INVESTIGATION OF THE DEPOSITS Dwelling places situated on the solid ground leave only a thin layer of rubbish consisting of flint chips, broken tools, potsherds, and some charcoal. Bones are usually much disintegrated or have totally dis- appeared along with other organic material. Such a dwelling place 536608—60——40 580 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 may have been inhabited continuously for a long period, or the habita- tion may have been interrupted for certain periods perhaps covering several thousand years. In excavating such habitation sites there is no possibility of deciding whether objects found together really are contemporaneous. In lakes and bogs this is different. Here, con- tinuous growth takes place in the shore zones, and every spring a new, luxuriant vegetation of swamp plants grows up covering the remains left the previous year. At the bottom of the lake one paper-thin layer of dead micro-organisms and pulverized plant fragments is de- posited upon the preceding, and little by little, as the years pass, the lake will be filled up and become a bog. If we imagine a dwelling place situated at the shore of such a lake or perhaps somewhere in the filled-up bog, the rubbish and the implements left will be placed at the proper position within this sequence of layers. Moreover, the bog will preserve not only the imperishable flint and the rather re- sistant potsherds but also wood and bark, bones, grain, and weed seeds. The layers of the bog will not only preserve the remains of the settlement, but at the same time the peat and lake deposits will yield information on the former plant and animal life by their content of seeds, bark and twigs, pollen grains, bones, shells, and other organic remains. They also provide us with means for dating the layers. For such reasons it is of the utmost importance that these deposits are thoroughly investigated and above all that the stratigraphy of the layers in relation to the habitation remains is established. Just as it is important to be able to reconstruct the position of the different culture remains in plane and section, it is equally important to be able to reconstruct the position of the different deposits which surround the culture remains. This is done by measuring the layers in the long peat walls which appear during the excavation. The excavation is done in sections of half a meter in width from the edge of the peat block formed by the trial trenches (drainage trenches). When the wall is dug out, it is cut smoothly plane and vertical like a well-laid brick wall. In that way we get a clear picture of the different layers in the section. It is now a question of using the eyes to note the color of the different strata both immediately after the cutting of the wall and later when the air has darkened the layers. The way in which the deposits dry will also give information about the type and structure of the layers. It is important to distinguish the strata of the same color and structure to be able to reproduce this picture. In practice this is done by drawing vertical lines on the wall at a distance of 25 cm. Where these lines cross the horizontal layers the intersections are marked by matches put into the wall. The intersections are then drawn in a notebook so that all the hori- MULDBJERG DWELLING PLACE—TROELS-SMITH 581 zontal measures are correct according to the scale of the drawing. Next, all the vertical measures are leveled out. In this way it is possible later to give a correct picture of the peat wall and the layers in it based upon the drawings and the levels (pl. 1). Ficure 3 (left)—Ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.). Ficure 4 (right)—Wych elm (Ulmus glabra Huds.). (Drawings by A. Noll S¢rensen.) The next task is to characterize the various layers that have been distinguished. Most of the layers consist of a mixture of different components. Fen peat, for instance, often contains the following elements: Roots and rootlets of herbaceous plants (7Z'urfa herbacea) ; fragments of stems and leaves of herbaceous plants (Detritus her- bosus) ; minor parts of alder twigs (Detritus lignosus) ; and finally mud or, as it is also called, gyttja (Limus detrituosus). Just as a chemical compound may be characterized by a simple formula giving the proportions of the atoms in the molecule, it is also possible to characterize a deposit by the proportions of the components contained in the layer. For the sake of later considerations regarding the genesis of the layer, it is important to know exactly how the deposit is built up and the components of which it consists. The excavation of artifacts, the determination of deposits, and the characterization of the composition of the various deposits should finally result in drawings both in plane and section showing the layers provided with deposit symbols that indicate the elements of which the layers are composed. Together with the photographs, the draw- 582 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 ings in plane and section form the solid basis on which all later work is built. SAMPLING METHODS The possibilities of carrying out investigations in the field without the use of instruments and chemicals are limited. Therefore, it is important to take samples for later investigation in the laboratory. These consist of samples for pollen analysis; samples for investigation of seeds, fruits, and shells; and samples for radiocarbon dating. Ficure 5 (left).—Small-leaved linden (Tilia cordata Mill.). Ficure 6 (right).—Oak (Quercus robur L.). (Drawings by A. Noll Sgrensen.) The pollen samples are taken in small vials which are pressed into the properly cleaned peat wall. The vertical distance between the samples is usually 2.5 cm.; in special cases they are taken at still smaller intervals. The pollen grains being microscopic, it is very important that the samples be pure; ie., that they are not contami- nated with peat from the layers above or below. After the sample has been taken, the vial is carefully corked and later sealed with paraffin so as to avoid contamination. In order to investigate the content of seeds and fruits, small sticks and twigs, and remains of insects or shells in the peat layers, larger samples are taken, usually about 200 cm. This is done by cutting a peat column out of the section. The column usually is 10 cm. broad and 10 cm. thick, and is cut into slices 2 cm, thick. Each slice is MULDBJERG DWELLING PLACE—TROELS-SMITH 583 ‘Mistletoe Jozoy auld o eae o x= 1 © v 3 2 eae es 1S) aSO41 YOO’ Sea Buckthorn Ficure 7.—Diagram showing the vegetational development in Denmark. The Disjwajay SOSSDI 9 VI Hazel- Oak V Hazel-Pine IV Birch -Pine II Younger Oryas ieee I Allerad Period ! Older Dryas 7S] 8 uy & = ¢ s) Fas wypUoi i Y-Jas /29409-9N¢S JI} uod/t y [oas0g [2190/9 04D 7/ position of the Muldbjerg dwelling place in the diagram is indicated by (Prepared by Johs. Iversen, Geological Survey of Denmark.) the thin line in the lower part of zone VIII. 584 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 put in a plastic bag and sent to the laboratory where it is preserved in alcohol. In collecting samples for radiocarbon dating, it is obviously un- desirable to take out a thick sample which might comprise a period of several hundred years. It is essential, therefore, to take a slice of peat as thin as possible, preferably less than 1 cm. thick. In order to avoid contamination of these samples by mold or mildew they are placed in a drying chamber under controlled heat as soon as possible, after which they may be kept for years in well-closed plastic bags. LABORATORY WORK REGISTRATION OF ARTIFACTS AND BONES The investigation of the Muldbjerg dwelling place has gone on for several years. Usually, the fieldwork was initiated in May—June, and often continued until the end of November or even until the middle of December (when snow and frost forced an end to it). After the return to the laboratory a lot of work had to be done. All the bags filled with culture remains were unpacked, the objects provided with numbers written with india ink, and the finds com- pared with the excavation records. In the laboratory there is more leisure for studying the artifacts, and often details are observed which have been overlooked during the excavation. In that way the exca- vation records may be corrected. Many objects are so friable when found that they have to be strengthened in various ways. This concerns first of all the potsherds. Though a potsherd may appear intact when lying in the peat layer, it often falls apart while drying. In such cases it is necessary to harden each single bit by means of a plastic-lac. When all the frag- ments have been hardened they must be glued together; thus the original sherd is restored in a durable way. Frequently bone tools and bones are so damaged that they must be strengthened by a preparation with plastic-lac or wax. Wooden objects are the most difficult to preserve, but in recent years the Department of Preser- vation at the Danish National Museum has achieved good results by special treatments which make it possible to dry the wood in such a way that it does not lose its original shape. When all the excavated objects have been examined, prepared, and provided with numbers, the worn record books, which are yellow from peat litter and stained from rain, can be retyped. In that way rec- ords on all the excavated objects are kept in numerical order. In this manner it is possible, from the number of an object, to find its position and level in the field. However, the information most often desired is what has been found along a surveyed section. ‘There- fore, it is necessary to make another record of all objects found within a given one-quarter square meter. This is done by cutting 585 TROELS-SMITH MULDBJERG DWELLING PLACE (‘puepinf ‘uowyoyi4q pur ‘purjesz ‘aptAqigs pure ussomey wory yIWUIG-s[a01], pue uasuesipf pueag fq sasdyeur uajjod jo siseq ayi uo poivdaig) ‘*sammysed I0j s3so10f Oy} JO syed a3u4] peivafo OYM UdWspiay JuRISIWU Aq pasnes d1aM WeIseIp 3} Ul JoYysIYy sosueyo oseip oy], .,opyy ‘out edeig ‘Aopleg payeN ‘eeyA,, pepeqe] poised ayy 0} ssuojeq sovjd suljamp s1afq “PININ P4YL “TILA 2002 uayjod yo y1vd Jomo] oy pue JT A euoz uarjod jo yed saddn oy Sutmnp AJOys1y [euoI}eIa30A dy} Jo WeIseIp palejaq—'s TANI SESDOD ays 4O asnpjng sepuny adky-y Ssayoag payoay -jauuns SIDE Af/PJAJ4F BSD -papuog SOX B410Q SAX AYD/Z 214409 Kajsog payON BIDEN P1/PFP447 PYyDal,sawog 422Y4M SOx PItING-UI4) P2YSi/Oq adky-g siayoag payoay-jauuny adk4-9 Ssuayoag pey2a\j-jauuny Kiag40g bsalgapjoy pops usp puojing aunpjny aaosg ajbure SOSSDAD yoo Ys py ‘uapury ‘ui/7 $$9404 YQ ulopUud/ (4920/9) Wn] Z 586 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 up a copy of the first record and rearranging and pinning together the pieces containing the information (type of object, coordinates, and level, as well as the number) pertaining to all objects found within the same one-quarter square meter in the field. From these slips there is written a record showing for each section the implements found there, and the pieces of flint, the bones, bark, charcoal, nut shells, and other remains—each category separately. The bone fragments represent a chapter of their own. They are examined at the Zoological Museum, where they are carefully studied to determine the animals from which they originated. At the same time there is an opportunity to make a number of other observations, e.g., as to where the bones had been cut, or how they had been broken in order to extract the marrow. Though the bone finds have been entered in the main numerical and locality records, it is neces- sary, when identifications have been completed, to make another numerical record and one arranged according to species of animals. DRAWING OF SECTIONS The measurements of the peat walls made during the excavations have to be redrawn on grid paper with a pencil to form the basis for later drawings in india ink. Three copies of each section are made: One on which the borderlines of the different deposits are drawn and the layers are numbered corresponding to a list of the geological diagnosis of the bog deposits; one copy with the borderlines of the layers and a projection of all the culture remains (flint chips, potsherds, nut shells, bone fragments, etc.) found within 25 cm. be- fore and behind the section (in this way a general view of the rela- tions between the culture layer or layers and the deposits of the bog is acquired) ; and a third copy drawn like the first one but with the numbers replaced by symbols that will enable an experienced geologist to read the composition of the deposits directly from this symbol section. INVESTIGATION OF THE POLLEN SAMPLES Pollen is the male semen of the flowers, and wind-pollinated plants produce enormous quantities which are carried by the wind to other flowers. By far the largest part of the pollen, however, is biologically wasted. It is sprinkled over the surface of the earth and destroyed, except for that which happens to fall on moist bogs or into lakes, where, incorporated in peat and mud layers, it may be preserved throughout millenniums. The pollen grains consist of an outer wall, which is very resistant and which surrounds the plasma. This inner plasma decomposes rapidly and perishes. In a single cubic centi- meter of peat or gyttja, several hundred thousands of pollen grains may be found, They are very small, usually about 20 to 50 microns, 1 MULDBJERG DWELLING PLACE—TROELS-SMITH 587 micron being 1/1,000 mm. The fact that pollen from the same species is all alike and is more or less different from that of related species makes it possible to determine from which plant a given pollen grain originated. Although it is possible to establish the presence of pollen grains in a peat sample just by stirring it in water and placing a drop of the liquid under a microscope, it is necessary to apply a careful chemical treatment for two reasons. First, the pollen must be concentrated sufficiently so that only a few slides need be counted. This is done by removing, by various treatments, the extraneous plant remains and the possible clay and lime in the samples; the pollen grains are so resistant that they can stand treatment with both hydrofluoric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid without being destroyed. Next the samples are treated chemically to make the pollen grains swell so that certain details become more marked. Often it is profitable to add some dyestuff which will stain the pollen but not the other components of the peat thus facilitating the counting of the grains. When the chemical treatment is concluded, microscope slides are prepared. A drop is placed on the slide and a thin cover glass is fixed on the top of it with molten wax. In this way the slide is sealed and can be kept for decades. The pollen grains are now ready to be counted. From each sample are counted on an average 2,000 to 3,000 pollen grains, which usually requires two days by a skilled pollen analyst. The common pollen grains, i.e., those of the forest trees and a number of herbs, are so characteristic that a determination can be made immediately, but now and then pollen grains are encountered which have not been ob- served before, and then the difficulties arise. Determination of the species of the pollen requires, of course, a thorough knowledge of the pollen of contemporary plants. The study of modern pollen, there- fore, must be carried on together with the study of fossil pollen. This necessitates the preparation of slides of pollen of contemporary plants, and the classification of the pollen according to shape, struc- ture, and surface sculpture. However, it is often necessary to retain the unknown pollen types, so-called X-pollen, not immediately identi- fiable, with a description, a drawing, or a photograph for final de- termination at a later time. By counting the number of pollen grains from the different plant species, knowledge is gained of the various trees and herbs which were growing in the surroundings of the bog when the peat sample was deposited, and the relative abundance of each species. SEED ANALYSES The peat samples which are taken for investigation of seeds and fruits also have to undergo a chemical treatment. They are placed 536608—60——_41 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 588 Cplpspe1q quegq Aq sisfyeuy) *IDAP] ainqns ay7 yim Aresodursyuos st puw puryst SuNvoy oy3 YoUsopuN pnur IYIIp oy1 WO st aU JOMO] OY f49do1d JAE] 2ININI dy} WoIy st s[dwes Joddn oy, ‘aoxjd Surjomp Srofqpynyyy oy2 woz UWNTOO Jead ¥ Ur sqUYyd uareyIp Jo sjimsy pue spaes yo aouesIN990 ay} Surmoys weiseiq—'6 aunorg HATOOTOGHOTTOTEOTTOGTORICATORTOGVOWGTR? ‘ 08 OL 09 05 OF OF OZ OI _} 09/ OE/ 0b 0S/0Z/ O/100/ 06 O8 OL O89 OS OF OF OZ OF OL 09 OS OF OF OZ O/ 09 05 Ob OF OZ 2 Ol UDI43/0/A 2/442ny Surbuizs apoystybiyy 42aMS194 419 ysns-ayid¢ f4OMYILILS ysnsjng snoonoj9 44OMpunoy, Kasagdsoy t4!W 49404 yI0q 49,044 40249 uoeq yong afJ44Sas007 ajding Spaampuog 12440 snijopiysnbuo er: _—— uopebounjog Moifspag Yyssopy Bf144S9S007 MO/j ay paempuog Assoug £1s3q MOILG f4om—Ksdig ysnajng | paampurg panva/-poosg Auounsby dwapy boyy mosjax f4omivads peaampuoy paying ploBbaoy yssoy ssp46 -u0jsjog 403919 Ayj1/-4840M, Mj) a4 yo4ig (wnipoj a) ebpas | psoadosg sapoy paroay-aury AyiJ-4240M A414 4epPly aungMoy UIDLUD/ g-484 04 oujsou solo saphydissay sapkydopowsay sapkydiydiuy Sapkydouuz Spuauipag wos},og eyo7 By (22407 2474179) Pr 4340 ding Jada, ae Spees fo 4aquiny uol499¢ MULDBJERG DWELLING PLACE—TROELS-SMITH 589 in dilute nitric acid, in which they are slightly oxidized so that the sample falls apart, and the peat snuff can easily be washed away by pouring the sample into a fine-meshed sieve. By this treatment the seeds and fruits become air-filled and will ascend to the surface when poured into a soup plate, while the larger plant fragments sink to the bottom. With a fine brush the single seeds and fruits are col- lected on a watch glass and are later sorted according to species and placed in sample vials. By comparison with seeds and fruits of con- temporary plants the specimens are identified as to genus and species. Thus from study of each peat sample it is known, layer by layer, which plants were growing on the spot, and in what proportion. WOOD IDENTIFICATIONS Charcoal, twigs, and pieces of branches found during the excava- tion may also tell about the vegetation. Oak and beech are most easily determined, usually with the naked eye or with the aid of a good magnifying glass. But in most cases it is necessary to prepare a thin section of the wood, which is examined under a microscope at about 100-times magnification. In that way the fine structure of the plant tissue becomes visible, making it possible to determine the trees and shrubs from which the charcoal, sticks, and twigs originated. RESULT OF THE INVESTIGATIONS THE TWO CULTURE LAYERS—THE FLOATING ISLAND Through the excavation and the surveyed sections we have obtained a knowledge of the structure of the bog (figs. 9 and 17) : At the bottom of the section we find gyttja and mud sediments which were deposited inalake. Above it is a dark-colored layer 380 to 40 cm. thick consisting of plant remains, leaves, and fragments of branches. Fragments of pots, bones, flint chips, and charcoal occur scattered within this lower culture layer. This layer was also deposited in a lake but in low water near the shore. This is followed by a 40-cm.-thick layer which, at the bottom, is composed of light gyttja interwoven with fine plant roots. Upward the roots dominate and the deposit darkens. At the top of this layer the plant roots are partially transformed into a dark homogeneous peat mass. Thereupon follows a thin culture layer which has a dirty gray color from charcoal dust and broken shells, and here we find a great number of flint chips, small potsherds, and bits of bones (upper culture layer). At the top the series of layers ends with a thick peat layer interwoven with alder roots. The striking thing about this section is that it comprises two culture layers: a lower one deposited in water, and an upper one resting on peat which was formed in a bog. At first glance one would believe that the lower layer was older and the upper younger, and that they were separated in time by several hundred, perhaps thousand, years. 590 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Nevertheless the artifacts in the two layers are alike; even the types of the vessels are identical. Further, it was proved that a potsherd found in the upper culture layer is part of a sherd found in the lower layer, the two surfaces of the fracture matching exactly. There is no doubt, therefore, that the culture remains in the two layers are contemporaneous, though they are separated by a deposit about 40 em. thick. Another significant fact is that there are cracks in the peat layer separating the two culture layers, and in some of the sections it can be seen how things from the upper culture layer have fallen through these cracks and have spread in the lower layer. To this we can add another observation throwing light on the problem. The pollen analysis shows that the upper part of the substratum (the former lake bottom) has exactly the same age as the lower part of the peat and gyttja layer that separates the two culture layers. Pol- len analysis from the lower culture layer shows, however, that this is considerably younger than the layers surrounding it; 1.e., younger than the layer it rests on and also younger than the one directly above. The only possible explanation is that the upper culture layer orig- inates from a dwelling place on a floating island. The inhabitants of the island threw their rubbish into the lake, and the waves washed a part of these culture remains underneath the floating island, together with leaves and branches, and finally the interspace between the float- ing island and the former bottom of the lake was filled with washed- in plant and culture remains. But how is such a floating island created? As mentioned above, the pollen analysis shows that the upper part of the substratum and the lower part of the floating peat island are of the same age, which means that the peat island at some previous time must have lain directly upon the layers which formed the lake bottom; namely, before the peat rose as an island. The reason for the peat breaking away from its base must be a rise of the water level in the lake. It is characteristic of bog plants that their roots are hollow and filled with air. These cavities are in reality a kind of oxidation system that enables the plants to grow in peat poor in oxygen. When such peat formations are covered with one-half to 1 meter of water, the buoyancy will be sufficient to make the peat layers break away from the bottom and rise like a ball which has been held under water (fig. 10). Such floating peat islands are still being formed; e.g., when mill ponds that have been drained for some time are dammed (pl. 2, fig. 2). THE LOCAL VEGETATION The plants that grew on the floating island and along its shores have left traces such as seeds and fruits (fig. 9). On the dwelling place itself the vegetation probably was rather poor, and only some grass, perhaps some moss, was able to resist the tramping feet. A few larger MULDBJERG DWELLING PLACE—TROELS-SMITH 591 WAN al SZ 5 SEE I 2 EE a eee 7 f CK KIO OOOO SAS SSK RK No COR 8 QL a LE SSNS WV | \ (Re | f wie WA i} K ay Medea a Ly i i WAS uA INU A) AAT LP AG | Ficure 10.—Sketches showing the genesis of a floating island. 1, A lake shore with a vege- tation of reeds. 2, The water level rises, and buoyancy of the air-filled roots of the swamp plants makes the swamp peat tear away from the substratum and rise so that it floats on the water. The island becomes inhabited. (The scale is indicated by the size of the woman.) 3, Plant remains are washed underneath the floating island, and gradually the interspace between the island and the bottom is filled up. (Drawing by B. Brorson Christensen.) alders and willows were spared, and also the stinging nettles, which people avoided. The seeds of strawberries and raspberries found here probably do not indicate that these plants grew on the spot. It seems more likely that the berries were gathered at another place and left at the village site in the form of excrements. The peat island was, on the other hand, encircled by a fertile growth of swamp plants, the seeds and fruits of which can be found washed in underneath the island. Nearest to the shore grew marsh marigold and various sedges, while waterplantain, gipsywort, purple loosestrife, yellow loosestrife, and mint needed more moisture. The odorous valerian lifted its flowers above the other plants, bittersweet nightshade grew tall in the open spots of the swamp, and bindweed clung to rush and reed. Farther out in the water there was a dense growth of reeds and cladium, and farthest out were the blue-green clusters of bulrush. And wherever there was a view through the reeds, water covered with yellow water-lilies could be seen. 536608—60——42 592 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Also the charcoal remaining from the fires that had been lit can tell about the vegetation of the place. Out of 487 pieces of charcoal, 321 were alder, 65 hazel, 49 oak, 37 willow, 10 elm, and 5 linden (figs. 3-6). It is obvious that most of the wood was gathered on the spot or in the immediate vicinity, where alder seems to have been the most common tree. Less interest was taken in willow, and the bits that were found of hazel, oak, lime, and elm probably are rubbish from timber which had been taken to the place from the solid land at least 3 to 4 km. away. THE VEGETATION OF THE REGION Seeds and fruits do not fall far from the mother plant, while pollen grains are spread over a large area (fig.7). The pollen analyses thus give a picture of the vegetation of the whole surrounding area. The forest dominates, and among the trees it is the oak and its asso- ciates—elm, linden, and ash—that prevail. Also the hazel was repre- sented, and here and there grew the dark-green yew tree which was suitable for the production of bows. Other trees, like the yew, were more rare: Crabapple, buckthorn, alder buckthorn, and shrubs such as spindle-tree and guelder-rose. The ivy was creeping up the trunks, and also the mistletoe was growing with its sticky berries which were suitable for bird lime. Apparently the forest was untouched. Man had not begun to influence nature—at least not to any appreciable ex- tent. The country was covered with primeval forest, and rivers and lakes were highways and stopping places for the traffic of that time. But, as we shall see later, certain traces reveal that man had slowly begun his attack on the immense primeval forest. THE FAUNA OF THE REGION Although the prevailing primeval forest was not very hospitable toward the animals, the bones found do show that it was worth while being a hunter. Red deer and roe found their way to the water for drinking, and the wild boars rummaged the earth in their search for roots. On quiet evenings it would have been possible to hear the small hedgehogs potter about in the withered leaves hunting worms and insects. The beaver built dams and gnawed the fresh bark, the otter went hunting for fishes, and there is no doubt that the muskrat was living in the shores of the floating island and was a welcome game for the boys on the place. A large number of birds lived at the lake. Swans, mallards, pin- tails, and shovelers had their nests in the swamps, and in the twilight the teal passed over the peat islet with whirring wings. In the lake there was good fishing for perch, pike, and trench. IN WHAT PART OF THE YEAR WAS THE PEAT ISLAND INHABITED? It is somewhat remarkable that these people settled down upon a floating island in a big lake. It might appear reasonable that they MULDBJERG DWELLING PLACE—TROELS-SMITH 593 Ficure 11.—Manufacture of drill points. The arrows indicate location of fracture. a, Blade chipped along one side; b, blade chipped along both sides; c, partly finished drill point; d, almost finished drill point; ¢, drill point showing signs of wear, and broken in use; f, drill point totally worn down. (Actual size.) (Drawings by A. Noll Sgrensen.) lived there during the summer, but in the winter one would think it an unpleasant place. But is there any possibility of learning what time of the year the island was inhabited? Yes; various things re- veal it: During the excavation of the culture layer about 700 willow and hazel twigs were found, all of them about 1 meter or more long (pl. 4, fig.1). They were placed together in 3 to 4 bundles, and apparently were collected for the purpose of making fish traps. Such plaited fish traps have been used up to the present time and are known as far back as about 5000 B.C. Cross sections of a great number of the twigs were examined by microscope (pl. 4, fig. 2), and all of them proved to be not quite 2 years old, as the youngest annual rings were not fully developed. Examination of the present growth of annual rings in similar plants during January to October makes it possible to determine at what time of year the twigs from the Muldbjerg dwelling place were cut, and proves that all the twigs must have been cut at the beginning of June. It has been mentioned earlier that fruit seeds of strawberry and raspberry were found at the dwelling place. In one case large quan- tities were found lying together and in such a way in the peat that there could be no doubt that they belonged to human excrement. Many of the somewhat larger raspberry seeds had been crushed be- 594 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 tween the teeth before being swallowed, in contrast with the smaller strawberry seeds. As the strawberry season precedes the raspberry season, it is only from the beginning to the middle of July that it is possible to enjoy both of these tasty berries. In this period at least the dwelling place must have been occupied. A large number of crushed nut shells were found spread all over the dwelling place, and, therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the site was inhabited until September. The bones give the same evidence. Bones from barely fledged birds indicate a habitation in June and July, and finds of bittern and other migratory birds point to the summer half year. Characteristic winter visitors among the migratory birds have not been found. Hence we are sure that the dwelling place was inhabited in the months of June, July, August, and September, while there is nothing to indicate that it was inhabited during the rest of the year. DATING IN RELATION TO THE VEGETATIONAL HISTORY Since the great glaciers retreated from Denmark, one type of vege- tation has followed another (fig. 7). Right after the Ice Age the herbs moved in, along with sedges and grasses, and here and there dwarf willow and dwarf birch. The country was naked and bare, and no trees gave shade. Later on, when it became warmer, the birch ar- rived, and a little later the dark-green pine trees. At the same time the aspen spread, just as did the rowan. When it got still warmer, large hazel shrubs began to spread all over the country, but in due time they were superseded by elm, oak, linden, and ash. These trees did not mi- grate rapidly, but once they had arrived, they were difficult to remove. Little by little the trees conquered the country, their shade closed off the light from the undergrowth, and it became dark and silent be- neath the high tops. At a certain time, however, small changes in the vegetation occurred: hazel began spreading again, the elms receded, and simultaneously the elders (plantain) appeared for the first time. A new epoch was announced (fig. 8). The first farmers had begun to lighten the primeval forest. Development began on a small scale, which was to make Denmark one of the least-forested countries in Europe. Only along time after man had begun this clearing work did beech appear, but once it had arrived it spread rapidly. Finally, as a challenge to the heath, man began to break up the heather and to plant spruce. This very development can be reconstructed by means of pollen analysis. At the same time this method makes it possible to date a given sample in relation to the history of the forests. Thus the Muldbjerg dwelling place can be dated to the time when the first farmers had just begun to clear the forests—or, more precisely, to the last part of the oak-forest period. MULDBJERG DWELLING PLACE—TROELS-SMITH 595 1685 1369 qe A iy Cee = 451 1234 Figure 12.—Transverse arrowheads made from blades and flakes. (Scale: fig, 75=2.5 cm.) (Drawings by A. Noll Sgrensen.) ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 596 14 , typical blade scraper. geal2 Discoidal; 14, oblon b) Scrapers of various types: 10 Ficure 13.— (Scale: e after the other. on “discs” flaked off rs 10 and 14 are made from two 7.2 cm.) (Drawings by B. Brorson Christensen.) The scrape ie O— MULDBJERG DWELLING PLACE—TROELS-SMITH 597 RADIOCARBON DATING For many years pollen analysis was the most accurate method of dating prehistoric finds, but in recent years, as a byproduct of re- search in nuclear physics, a dating technique has been developed which, earlier, one would not even have dared to dream of. By this radiocarbon method it is possible to give the age of organic materials, i.e., wood, bones, horn, plants, etc., in years. The principles and the application of this dating method will not be dealt with here, but it may be mentioned that the Muldbjerg dwelling place has provided material for a long series of radiocarbon dates. The dating of this dwelling place thus is among the most accurate obtained so far. It appears that Muldbjerg was inhabited around 2830 B.C.—possibly up to 80 years before or after this date; i.e., most probably between 2750 and 2910 B.C. As all finds indicate that the dwelling place was in- habited for only a single summer, the year of this occupation most probably falls within the above-mentioned interval (fig. 17). THE MULDBJERG DWELLING PLACE AND THE PEOPLE WHO LIVED THERE We do not know what the people who lived on the floating island looked like. Judged from contemporaneous finds of human skulls and bones, there is reason to believe that both men and women were rather small, respectively about 165 and 155 cm. tall, relatively slight, and with dolicocephalic skulls. At the islet they were living in a hut about 6 to 7 meters long and hardly 3 meters wide, and with its long axis east-west. Along each side 6 to 7 hazel sticks were put down; the pointed ends were found 15 to 20 cm. below the upper culture layer. It would be reasonable to imagine that the hut was covered with reeds, although we have no observations indicating this. In the hut itself large amounts of charcoal and flint chips were found. Outside the hut, along the north side, no culture remains were left; on the other hand, fireplaces and numerous tool finds indicate that the south side was the preferred place to sit, where there was a view over the lake. Here the women could sit and watch when the men came home from hunting and fishing in their dugouts, and here the men sat chopping their flint tools, flake axes (fig. 15), and core axes. They also had polished, point-butted axes. With their flint knives (fig. 14) and discoid scrapers (fig. 13) they were able to carve and shape wooden tools with great skill. Thus arrow shafts carved from ash wood were found, and from alder they produced nicely formed spoons, as is shown by a specimen found at a neighboring contemporary dwelling place (pl. 3, fig. 2). Discoid scrapers were used for skin preparation, and for sewing they probably used pointed awls of bone. The study of a number of small, pointed flint pieces has given valuable information about the manner in which flint drill points were manufactured (fig. 11). They were diflicult to produce, and, 1959 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 598 Faz back, (Scale: fig. -) nives, characterized by the blunted (Drawings by B. Brorson Christensen S/S 5) Sin) Ficure 14.—Various types of k Smithsonian Report, 1959—Troels-Smith PLATE 1 1. The Muldbjerg dwelling place during the excavation. Behind the excavation, peat litter is being collected for the manufacture of briquettes. 2. A peat block, cut clean and drained, is being excavated. Smithsonian Report, 1959—Troels-Smith PLATE 2 1. Excavating and surveying culture remains. ‘The coordinates are recorded, and after being leveled out the finds are numbered and tagged and wrapped in paper. 2. The peat islet ‘Store Holm” in lake Lyngby Sg, 10 miles north of Copenhagen. Most of the islet is floating on the water and is only 40 cm. thick. The Muldbjerg dwelling place must have looked much like this. (Photograph by Lennart Larsen.) Smithsonian Report, 1959—Troels-Smith PLATE 3 . Metatarsus of red deer, split in order to get out the marrow; 19 cm. long. (Photograph by > Lennart Larsen.) 2. Spoon carved from alder wood, 30.6 cm. long. The spoon had cracked and had been repaired by drilling holes on both sides of the crack and tying the parts together with bast string. ‘This object was not found at the Muldbjerg dwelling place, but at a neighboring dwelling place of exactly the same age (Maglelyng XL). (Photograph by Lennart Larsen.) Smithsonian Report, 1959—Troels-Smith PLATE 4 1. In the exposed culture layer 700 twigs of hazel and willow were found placed together in bundles. All the twigs were between | and 2 years old. (Photograph by Lennart Larsen.) 2. A section of willow twig, magnified about 40 times. ‘To the extreme left the black bark layer is seen. Next follows a relatively small, not full-grown year ring (the uncompleted second-year ring). “Then follows the ring from the first year; and at the extreme right, the pith. (Photograph by E. 'Tellerup.) Smithsonian Report, 1959—Troels-Smith PLATE 5 a, b, Sherd from a funnel-necked beaker of A type with finger prints in the reinforced rim. 7.2cm.high. c,d, Very thin-walled vessel from the Muldbjerg dwelling place, seen in profile and from the front. 6.6cm. high. (Photograph by Lennart Larsen.) PLATE 6 Smithsonian Report, 1959—Troels-Smith a lugged vessel found at the dwelling place. cord handles for suspension. ‘The vessel was 80 m. north of the dwelling place. Pollen 19.3 cm. high. a, b, Pierced cord handle belonging to 5.6 cm. high. c, Vessel with pierced found in the lake sediments about analyses have shown that it is contemporary with the dwelling place. (Photograph by Lennart Larsen.) MULDBJERG DWELLING PLACE—TROELS-SMITH 599 Ficure 15.—Flake ax, the most common type of ax at the dwelling place. %size. (Draw- ing by B. Brorson Christensen.) therefore, they often broke during the process of manufacture. In some cases we have succeeded in fitting together the broken pieces of more or less finished drill points. In this way it has been possible to obtain a sort of slow-motion picture of the manufacture. First, one finds small flint blades chipped along one side; next, pieces chipped along both sides; then others in which the point has been finished but not yet worn by use; next, finished pieces which were broken in use; and finally, pieces which had been used for so long that the point was worn down and the blade, therefore, rejected. Only a small per- centage were used for this length of time. An amazingly great num- ber has been found, but for what purpose were they used? Some of the artifacts themselves give the answer. A wooden spoon had cracked and had been made usable again by drilling a hole on either side of the crack and binding it through the holes (pl. 3, fig. 2). Also some of the earthen pots had broken and had been repaired by drilling holes on both sides of the crack, tying the parts together with lime-bast, and smearing birch tar and resin over the strings and holes. It is an established fact that people of that time used birch tar. This is known partly on account of the repaired vessels, and partly from a single pot which contained a 1-millimeter-thick layer of birch tar on the inner side. It is possible that the many rolls of birch bark, which were found in the culture layer, indicate that birch tar was burnt at the place. The bone finds tell that, apart from fish, the people ate wild boar, beaver, and roe deer, and, less often, red deer. Accordingly, it must have been hunters who lived here. At the same time strawberries, raspberries, and hazel nuts were eaten to a great extent. However, 536608—60—_43 600 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Ficure 16.—Two hazel sticks lashed together with bast string; 31 cm. long. (Drawing by B. Brorson Christensen.) a few finds indicate the beginning of a new epoch. {ebbatinka tM sesame K 24 - 26 +128-29+131-32: 2630 +80 BC Swamp - peat ISSSINRREER . drift mud ~ 3200 21608.C) [Kis6 _ | Ki2e SEESE : >> K136 2650 21608C.)° | 2060 t0BC] < >>} 23970 1180 B.C. Zk = BE x KEESERE 3660 21808. calcareous mud Ficure 17.—Schematic section through the dwelling place on the floating peat island. K-123, etc., are the numbers of the carbon-14 samples. All dates given are B.C. Ac- cording to a correction from the radiocarbon laboratory all dates should be 200 years older. BAMA dr: ple yt Tus bo, Pant pest sys nh Se . wil oil sree antigs fray x veer ante blot or ‘ir bad) Danmeed SU sek ey PAATRROW Ah . t lone Tiles sue ail] Lats ae: dpataly gly 4 de— eee . ii ni bry seo ey tens a ech dG Sea Lave Hester ofor (matla aa ait boe-lonh. Ta Li Peettesty xcelavt at 7 ind ua yam 7 | ; ha Three Adult Neanderthal Skeletons From Shanidar Cave, Northern Iraq By Raupx S. SoLecki Department of Anthropology Columbia University [With 12 plates] Tue rECOvERY of three adult Neanderthal skeletons in Shanidar Cave, northern Iraq, by the Third Shanidar expedition in 1957 pro- vides important new data for the study of Early Man. This arche- ological expedition, sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution,’ made further contributions to our knowledge of the early cultures of Iraq, preliminary announcements of which have been published (Solecki, 1957a, b, c, d, 1958, 1959a, b; Solecki and Rubin, 1958). The purpose of this paper is to describe the circumstances of the discoveries of the Neanderthal skeletons; to indicate their strati- graphic relationships to one another and their positions in the cave deposits; and to provide such information on the individuals repre- sented as could be interpreted from the archeological remains. A provisional correlation is made between the Shanidar skeletons and other Middle Paleolithic skeletons in the Near East. The morpholog- ical descriptions of the Shanidar Neanderthals are left to my col- league Dr. T. D. Stewart, of the U.S. National Museum, Smithsonian Institution. In his special field, Dr. Stewart has assumed the obliga- tion of the restoration, description, and evaluation of these Mousterian age remains (Stewart, 1958, 1959). 1The Third Shanidar Expedition was supported by grants from several organizations, including the American Philosophical Society, the William Bayard Cutting Traveling Fellowship of Columbia University, the National Science Foundation, the Bruce Hughes Fund of the Smithsonian Institution, and the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropolog- ical Research. The Iraq Petroleum Co., Ltd., graciously lent material aid and assistance to the expedition in Iraq. The Directorate General of Antiquities of Iraq, as in the 1951 and 1953 seasons, extended its cooperation. The work of these seasons has been pub- lished in preliminary statements and reports (Solecki, 1952a, b, 1953a, b, 1955a, b, ec; microfilm). The field personnel of the Third Shanidar Expedition included the author and his wife, Dr. Rose f. Solecki, archeologist of Columbia University; Philip Smith, archeologist of Peabody Museum, Harvard University; and George Maranjian, physical anthropologist, of the Arabian-American Oil Co. at Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. 603 604 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 5 be’ KAW on O recat Ona saaee SSO Se Sto ne H Foam fot Treen sana oie] ‘ 4 4 t a ae sesnaittdan CHILD 1953, Pit to bedrock ! ‘DOS ce #6! ‘ ; E t B7 > SS RU Re pe ee —~— > wee So are a im. fide iD mite ie eee ae ore Sane AS lescn ~~ GS See <= | LAYER TA GA —— S E=>) aes = ye eee SS rs Sea Ss cHarcoac * 1° Tf cur BACK 2 ee IMEC KS 2m. img tn tas C x ‘ Se Oe cr 0 Po sh ME enGTAVNID Yne-8 (EAOLAINI NELECKS,, gRoWwN ae RODENT _- _ HEARTH (\" Caner os HOLE, Z ‘ j I) ay "CHARCOAL RS paris AG} DS Wee --- STREAKS a ae ee eS a Od <= Wey r'y ——S 4, a “540 C14. Cee “ie LAYER 8 ot 3. DARK BROWN LoAM( c74 ee ecks ees OFS CONTAINING CHARCOAY_5O/L SAMPLE SAL 1 (NOE Na é EE FLECKS AND ASHES ic y 4 x ° ae al’ J = NK Sa > ees LAYER C earns! ge =) TSR ONY SA SE BE OSS sm ay c=) Se J iS : h LAYER D SHANIDAR ADULT I _-® a SHANIDAR ADULT I (6) / 2 6m. METERS BELOW METERS ‘0’ DATUM Ficure 3.—Cross section of the east wall on line B6-B9 showing the location of Shanidar adult skeletons I and III. Before any further cleaning was done around the skull, a careful appraisal of the situation was made. It was too hazardous to enlarge the cut because of the heavy limestone blocks above and all around the find. Limestone fragments were found as close as 10 cm. to the east side of the skull. It lay in a pocket of loose, moist, dark-brown sandy loam containing some charcoal flecks. A broad, oblong, horizontal streak of dark soil measuring 8 cm. long and 1 cm. wide was en- countered about level with the eyebrows and 5 cm. from the west or right side of the calvarium. This streak, containing charcoal flecks, extended downward along the side of the skull parallel with its axis, widening to a width of 3cm. It may have been part of a rodent bur- row, a fairly common phenomenon in Shanidar Cave. Soil samples were taken from around the skull as the work progressed. We naturally wondered how much of the rest of the skull, including the face, was preserved below the eyebrows, and further cleaning re- solved this question. It was evident that the blow on top of the skull SKELETONS FROM SHANIDAR CAVE—SOLECKI 609 had caused much damage to the lower part. The nasal bones were broken and bulged outward. The skull height was foreshortened, measuring about 10 cm. from the top to the level of the brow ridges. However, even in its crushed state, the cranial vault appeared to have a definitely sloping forehead behind a heavy brow. The skull was canted slightly to the west, although still on an even keel. It faced south by southeast. Approximate field measurements were made on the skull using a wooden rule. The head length was about 21 cm., breadth about 18 em. ‘These measurements on the crushed skull of course did not repre- sent the original skull dimensions. The biorbital diameter was about 12cm. The brow ridges were very prominent and striking; they did not form a complete torus between the eyes, and they had a definite lateral flare. They measured about 12 cm. from side to side. Just behind the brow ridges was a marked postorbital constriction. A bulge occurred in the region of the facial bones on either side of the nasal aperture. A fragment of unidentified bone protruded from the orifice of the left eye socket. The frontal bone was cracked just to the left of the midline, the crack arcing up over the left brow. There was a vertical break through the middle of the left brow (pls. 3, left, and 4, upper). The condition of the breaks in the calvarium could be accounted for only by the crushing blow on the rear of the top and left side of the head, which burst the sides asunder. All the cranial bones seemed to be present and accounted for. The right part of the cranial vault, in- cluding the broken parietal, appeared to be in good condition. The bones of the left side of the skull vault just behind the frontal bone had been collapsed deep into the skull, leaving a V-shaped, jagged break (pls. 3, right, and 4, lower). Anarea measuring 15 cm. long and 10 cm. wide was crushed in the cranium. Fragments of limestone were picked out of the loose dark-brown soil filling the top of the cavity. Part of the right upper parietal shelved over the break. All the sutures of the skull appeared to be closed, giving evidence of full maturity. We were very much impressed by the freshness of the appearance of the bones. They were dark reddish-brown, with black mottled patches and specks scattered over the surface. Although the bones were very friable, they were in a fair state of preservation and the soil peeled away very easily, leaving a damp surface, which dried rapidly on exposure. During the cleaning operation, an important consid- eration for the preservation of the skull became apparent. It seemed that the firm exterior surface of the cranial vault belied the actual thickness of the bone, particularly the crushed-in part of the left side (pl. 4, fig. 2). There the bone was reduced to almost eggshell thinness because the inner bone surface had become detached. Maran- 610 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 : : CRUSHED IN STONE \ ae Lr ae Ficure 4.—Top view of Shanidar adult Neanderthal I. jian’s careful attention later in the Shanidar laboratory prevented further deterioration of this sort. Probing around the lower part of the face revealed that the lower jaw or mandible was missing from its expected position. In the course of cleaning away the soil, a U-shaped row of blunt projections showed up to the left and front of the face. Further cleaning exposed a row of teeth in a mandible, for such it was (pl. 3 and fig. 4). <)p reer 2 oO SE voor umes on ec J A NEANDERTHAL NO.1 = od -- (ORIGINAL {POSITION \ 1 oFsKuL I w(aEmoveD)! ~ ESP ed 5/15/57 (CAT. NO. §78) X-7 Ficure 6.—Locations of animal bones found on and among the stones lying over Shanidar I. had been crushed upon underlying stones of small size. Other bones were obviously displaced, and some could not be located. From the breakages and displacement of the bones, it appeared that the direc- tion and thrust of the rockfall had been downward to the north and west. Of course, some shifting of the stones after the rockfall could have taken place. When fully uncovered, the skeleton was found to be extended full length on its back in an east-west direction (pl. 5 and fig. 7). Ap- proximating the position of the skull, which had already been re- moved, the length of the skeleton from head to feet was about 160 cm.*° The width across the shoulders was about 38 cm., and the distance from the neck to the hips, about 40 cm. The force of the stone fall seems to have been greatest on the individual’s lower legs, his left hip, and the upper part of his chest. The feet, which lay higher than the rest of the body, had been cut off at the ankles and jutted outside the heap of loose stones in a relatively stone-free area. In the upper part of the postcranial skeleton (pl. 6, left) it was noted that the left shoulder was higher than the right. The left collar bone or clavicle was in approximately normal position; the left shoulder bone or scapula was broken. The right scapula and 3 Using bone lengths, Dr. Stewart (1959, p. 277) estimates by modern standards a stature for Shanidar I of 5 feet 7 to 8 inches. 536608S—60——44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 616 ‘T [PY4topuronyy yupe Jeplueys jo UOJ] 94S [erueioysod ayYL—Z FAN ly SKELETONS FROM SHANIDAR CAVE—SOLECKI 617 right clavicle could not be identified under field conditions. There appeared to be a first rib arched under the left clavicle. A large, flat, limestone slab lay under the left shoulder and upper left arm. About 5 cm. of earth lay between the skeleton and the stone. The right upper arm was not recognized in the field. Later, in Baghdad, Dr. Stewart discovered (1959, pp. 277-278) that Shanidar I had an underdeveloped right scapula, clavicle,and humerus. He believes that this cripple’s useless right arm had been amputated in life just above the elbow. This discovery accounts for part of our difficulty in identifying this part of the skeleton. Furthermore, the surviving parts of the right arm and shoulder had been caught underneath the right side of the rib cage. In contrast, the left arm lay with the elbow close to the body, with the forearm across the chest. The proximal end of the left humerus was shattered, and its midshaft was crushed under a stone. The bones of the left forearm, the radius and ulna, were somewhat separate and broken under stones. The vertebrae of the thoracic region were displaced to the right side. The ribs also were displaced to the right side, broken, split, and crushed. The hip bones had suffered greatly in the rockfall (pl. 6, right). There were several double-fist-sized angular limestone fragments and two larger stones in this area. Adding to the confusion in this region was a loose scapula and about 16 other loose bones provisionally identi- fied as of mammal origin. The ilium of the left hip was displaced headward at an acute angle and fractured over a left rib bone. I noted that there appeared to be a broad sciatic notch in the pelvis, generally considered a female trait among modern races, but Dr. Stewart has judged the sex to be male. At and below the right hip joint was a heavy concentration of broken mammal bones and small stones, among which a bone provisionally identified as the left patella or knee cap was found. The shaft of the right femur was broken and crushed, but still in place, with the right patella at the inner side of the distal end of this bone. The left femur was missing from its place. Five stones were removed from the area of the lower legs. The left tibia lay dislocated, over and at right angles to the axis of the right tibia, both bones crushed together under a stone 33 cm. long (pl. 7, upper). Fragments of the bones were found adhering to the underside of this stone. The proximal end of the left tibia lay over the proximal end of the right tibia (pl. 7, lower). The left fibula, also much dis- placed from its joint with the left foot, lay about 17 cm. to the west side of its normal position next to its companion bone. The stone had sheared across the distal shaft of the right tibia, leaving the broken joint end still in articulation with the right foot. Although compressed, the feet had not been smashed, presumably because of the cushioning effect of the soil and the fact that heavy 618 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 stones did not actually strike them. The feet were about 15 to 20 cm. above the level of the rest of the body, close together, with the toes ex- tended and pointing downward. The right foot, which lay slightly higher and more forward than the left, was exposed first. The heel of the left foot had been displaced to the north side, presumably by the stone which had torn away the left leg. ‘The distal ends of the right tibia and fibula, cleanly broken, were found in articulation with the bones of the right foot. About 23 cm. south of the right foot was found the knob end of a large bone, provisionally identified as the distal end of the missing left femur. About 10 cm. to the northwest of the left foot was found a section of the shaft of a large bone, which could not be positively identified, but may also have been part of the missing left femur. My reconstruction of this fatal accident is that the individual had been killed by a rockfall while standing on the sloping cave floor fac- ing the east. The fall of stones which struck him was a minor wave of a larger ceiling collapse toward the front of the cave. His body was not completely covered with stones, although the impact was forceful. Fortunately also for the preservation of the remains, the soil absorbed some of the blow. Had the stones been of tremendous weight, or if he had been caught against a solid bed of stones, his remains would have been crushed into an unrecognizable pulpy layer. A number of stones must have fallen on him within split seconds, throwing his body backward full length down the slight slope. Pre- sumably the first stones struck him on the head and across the feet and legs. The latter members were close together, with the left leg slightly flexed toward the right. The feet were caught fast under debris, while the lower legs were struck by two stones. One of these ripped the lower left leg from its foot, twisting the leg on its axis and turning it at a right angle to its opposite member. Simultaneously the other stone sheared off the lower right leg against another stone like a butcher’s cleaver, crushing the upper part of the lower left leg against it. Some of the force of the blow must have been to the northwest as well as downward. His left upper leg must have been smashed by a very heavy impact, since the left pelvic bone was forced headward over the lower ribs and the left femur was displaced. Possibly the section of large bone found a few centimeters to the north of the ankles, and another broken bone found to the south of the feet, are pieces of the left femur. In falling backward, his body twisted to the right, pinning down his useless stump of a right arm. His left arm and hand, drawn protectively to his chest, were crushed into his ribs and spine. At the same time, his lower thoracic vertebrae were thrust to the right. His head and neck were severed from the trunk and left in an unnatural] attitude. His head faced over his right shoulder, at a right SKELETONS FROM SHANIDAR CAVE—SOLECKI 619 angle to his chest. The lower jaw was dislocated to the front and left side of the cranium and broken against a flat stone. The many broken and split mammal bones over and around and in direct contact with the skelton have been mentioned. ‘Two especially thick concentrations are noteworthy: one directly over and slightly to the east of the pelvic area, and another over the left shoulder and left upper arm. ‘These masses of bones could have been rodent nests. The eccentric position of some of the individual’s bones and the ap- parent absence of others might be laid to rodents. Thus, animal action was very likely responsible for the strange displacement of the left fibula and for the absence of the left femur from its normal position. The shifting of soils and stones could not have produced this effect. I believe that survivors of the rockfall returned after a while, and seeing what had happened, heaped some loose stones, the closest at hand, over the unfortunate’s remains. Some of the loose mammal bones lying on top of and among these stones may have been part of a funeral feast. Some of the mammal bones crushed under the stones were certainly not the result of rodent action. Eventually a few centimeters of occupational deposit accumulated over the heap, fol- lowed by another rockfall, which sealed off the Mousterian deposit in this quarter. Thus ended a people and an age at Shanidar Cave. Although he was born into a savage and brutal environment, Shani- dar I provides proof that his people did not lack in compassion. Here was an armless cripple, a pre-sapiens individual, who could barely forage and fend for himself. We must assume that he was accepted in his society and supported by his companions throughout his lifetime. That he made himself useful around the hearth is evidenced by the unusual wear on his front teeth. It indicates pre- sumably that in lieu of a right arm he used his jaws for grasping. The stone heap over his remains shows that even in death his person was an object of some esteem, if not respect, born out of close relationship against a hostile environment. Two flints were found close to the skeleton (pl. 6, left; fig. 7), but these were not necessarily part of Shanidar I’s tool kit. One was an oblong gray chert flake measuring 3.3 cm. long, 3.1 cm. wide, and 0.3 em. thick. It has a beveled edge on one long side showing use retouch. This specimen was found 15 cm. to the north of, and slightly lower than, the left shoulder. On the opposite side of the skeleton, touch- ing the inner side of the ribs, was another flint. It was a black flint flake showing no retouch. As the skeleton was exhumed and cleaned of earth, the bones were coated with a solution of Nicol cement (pl. 8). Since our field obser- vations on the remains in situ could never be as thorough as under controlled conditions in the laboratory, it was thought that the entire 620 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 skeleton should be removed en bloc. Each separate bone could then receive the attention it required, and the whole skeleton could be studied at leisure. Therefore, I determined that we should encase the skeleton as it lay. Since the feet and adjacent parts appeared to form a reasonable unit, I decided to make them a separate package. The body proper, including the lower limbs, made another unit of manage- able size. On May 30, after the bones had been thoroughly coated with a protective film, we packed a sheathing of cotton and waste over the bones. Over this we put successive strips of burlap cloth soaked in plaster of paris. For rigidity and strength, a frame of wood and lath was put over and around the skeleton. After the top of the skele- ton was covered sufficiently, we undercut the remains, adding succes- sive strips underneath. A number of stones were encountered below the remains and had to be included in our casing. In this manner, the body of the skeleton was encased in one block, and the feet in another. The removal of the feet was a simple matter; that of the larger casing was quite another, necessitating the combined strength of seven men to raise it to the top of the excavation (pl.9). The following day, May 31, a team of eight men was organized to carry the larger cast down the trail. A four-poled rig of tree limbs was formed into a sort of suspension carriage, two poles on either side of the cast. A man was positioned at the end of each of the poles. It looked like the prototype of a knee-action vehicle. The men had gone no more than 50 yards when it became obvious that more man- power was needed. I had to send out into the fields to impress five more men into service. The portage went easier with the larger crew. The casings were boxed that night, and on June 1, at 5:30 a.m., left Shanidar police post by truck for the railroad station at Erbil, ac- companied by an armed escort of three policemen riding high on the box. SHANIDAR II The discovery of Shanidar II (field cat. No. 619 IIT; pls. 8, 9, 10), on May 23, during the last week of the season at Shanidar, was almost overwhelming. I had ordered one of my ablest Kurdish workmen, Mohammed Amin, to clean the west wall of the excavation for dia- graming. This was one of the last stages of our work before closing down the excavation for the season. Wall cleaning is done by peeling or scraping away thin sections in order to expose fresh surfaces for detailed observation and to facilitate distinguishing soil changes. In so doing, the workman’s trowel exposed the edges of several teeth at a depth of 7.25 m. from “0” datum in square D 8 of Layer D (figs. 1, 8,9). The worker, being well trained, called me to the spot to make an examination. I could not decide immediately what he had dis- covered. ‘The teeth were barely visible in the section, but appeared to 536608 O - 60 - (Face p. 620) D-I3 6 0-5 SOUTH OF CAVE ‘0’ DATUM i im. 2m. gm. 5m. 6m. 7m. 8m. 9m. 10m. Im. 12m, 13m. 14m. 15m. Lim SEC METERS BELO ‘o' DATUM a hae BROWN Rese a PD = Do» SANDY LOAM <— HEARTHS . =~} 7 ss faa) = —— eee = Me ee = 2S TS one es / d — = _—s LIGHT BROWN = tee antl ty SANDY LOAM en — LOAM ——- St > Sy lea SS == i- Tee | | EXCAVATED ~—-1951 - 1953 WOW FILLED WITH DEBRIS | BED ROCK ing — HEARTAS GND CALCINED ASH LENSES —_—. ™ Eas ELI GS TRE A cogas oe \ SS FELLOW sr = REAK Z | Ww, eles STREAD ~ Aer apaa eas | Pa, Fe ea iis = 019/11 SS K. MEAL, 1, ~™| / ! ! =| | | | | l LAYER A -_— - - — = ? fe mr } LAYER B ? LAYER C =I P ? | LAYER D 536608 O - 60 - (Face p. 620) ‘0 DATUM im. 2m. gm. 4m. 6m. 7m. 8m. 9m. 10m. I/m. 12m, 13m. 14m. 15m. 0-13 D-12 D-il 0-10 0-9 0-8 as ae we ae SOUTH ACK TOPSOIL MODERN SURFACE OF CAVE mz ED ASH LENSES ‘ HEAR AND caLciNn = = ee wP — — ne in en ——=> SSS SS ea 3 le WEARTHS-AND_CALCINED ASH LENSES 7 Cage i a OB = ELIOT S REA amen ome ee -= = = : = DARK BROWN MIXED LOAM ee -* . Se eee Age ie ALCINED & = ELLow sr, A YELLOW C Wee = ei Rear > ; YER ee : WHITE > eae = & WHITE CALCINED STONE LA = Pee ae : REAK | LIMIT OF x: HE EO BURNED LOAM eT URE — = rs “San epee & a SECTION DRAWING ~~ RS “e MITE CAL CINED STONES AND SOIL = —— ‘ a ee aS Sh ofa i as ates on sae CEERRICS - —- si - 3 sigh! oe : 5 ee Tf *— = CUT~ 64 OH LA ELL LAL IT = Rie : So ae eta ae ARTA ROOTE rs =a ~ & LAYER B ‘04 om Hes PACE ELT L TT 11 Iede PH Re a, T°) Pe E | ? LAYER B DARK BROW’ M HEARTH Ca Pedi Pia OMA Ais | t1,,, YELLOWISH BROWN | ' = Ly re tas teed TAB e Py — vB * SSSR Reooren-arown com SE ORS ae! 3 | == SANDY LOAM | ae a ee — - | LAYER C re { fo ae 4 J a oe LAYE: { cS) LOAM “SRODENT - a FED BASE ,0W" ad ee peanry So | = : - aor :. “- - CHARCOAL - = 8 Lo mr s | ¢-FlecKs— SS gist: j = MEARTIS. oo aise 0 2 I er CL ‘ es L Sore : = [senrHEAREH = ae ee 4 YA S Pe SES CHARCOAL FLECKS ° *- ai 3 ~s ° =o » y —=> oe Ls GA or = ; LIMIT OF EXCAVATION cA ow 13 agrees Ny \ OR = 0 RK CVA ; oa 1 ° CD LM ONS Pa: Sr Ga) Seay oy e y ty has ep Lp€ f= Ey 0; ee Os | a a] aS fA Gf HeakrHs 7 | LIGHT BROW! ; ~~ r. AREAINCLUDED DY LOAM Y HEARTH Sm. = “a IN THIS PROFILE > Sane ee = LIGHT BROWN ™ = SS Long ra = = — es | BY — 04—~= ft = | 2 j= 12, WAp, NE ERAS Cog wt S7RGAys SANDY LOAM | IME? WD, ROCK Ment ISA g— ~~’ % "ELEC a ae 7S PLAN OF SHANIDAR CAVE C14 #63/ es Rey ee SU ieee oa HEARTH z | EXCAVATION 5/30/57 SKULL OF SHANIDAR ADULT 2. =. HEARTH alee = a ae = - —= = = _ HEARTH = x —_— Ss LS = PHIRI NNN DOOOOSOROREOHIOO a LIMIT OF EXCAVATION STALAGMITIC BR ow N = HEARTS; MIXED "~~ cay J a — = pa = M4: os 0 / 2 3 4 5 = Sites ee LAYER D EE ———————Oeeee—_—_— O_O OO —_—F L ea “seee===s, S| LEVEL OF SSS ee eae METERS RECENT DEBRIS | ____ 2° hee ! is | CROSS-SECTION OF WEST WALL ON LINE DI3-D3 | | SHANIDAR CAVE 5/30/57 ! | | EXCAVATED 1951-1953 | | WoW FILLED WITH DEBRIS ; | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | METERS BELOW ‘O' DATUM FIGURE 8.—Cross section of west wall of the Shanidar Cave excavation on line D13—D3 showing position of skull of Shanidar II. ——————— jimmy oer 6ftcavarion RY MEWOYraw AO Worysaz-22009 POR\2 «-BVAD RAGINARE ee ie ee ee ee ee me ee me I WOIAG CHETIM WH ted whtoShoiszber stead eau oo line D13-—DS chew! Dagion of skull of Shanidar Sf. see wn way wath sett waPres O'- 06 - (Ewce b* eso) 621 SKELETONS FROM SHANIDAR CAVE—SOLECKI ‘T] JepluULYs Jo UOIerO] ZUIMOYsS [[BA JSAM JO UOTIDES ssOJ JO [!vI@q—"6 AINSI WNLVd ,O, M0139 SY7LIW “YE SYUFLIW Zz / 10) oe NOILVAVOXI 40 LIWIT 74 INOLS NITTIVI AG JIASVHS JO G3IYVITI LON FIONd Ss we Pe SW O74 $993149 TVOIHVHO ONY o : Fie ie p> TvoouvHo a , = ~~ ONY, SLNIWOVYS y Bos be eye $33NOLSZWIT ONINIVLNOO 2 SLNIWIVYS INOLSIWNIT oninivinoa wor W¥O7 Agnys o “NMOUD W4vO VM o ws AONYS NMOYG LHOIT % aes a -"@ 2 Pale. Men .. Tree Se eS SWIIT4 TYODUYWHO oe ws : a FHL S a IHL 5 Se a < ee ATED) "Oo NINIVYLNOD SHYTUIS,T WO IUYVHD Boal 2 OC Ss a OO wvo? NMOYS HUva SYITNTVOIUVHO © : . SS = j : A tin wvo7 NMovR wud ee eG) wg tee fae ae ne St y fe) fo} u = wg HLNOS 622 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 be fixed inajaw. I thought it might be a pig, or some other mammal. Because at the time there were other pressing duties connected with the recovery of Shanidar I, I drew a large circle around the teeth, and stuck a surveying pin in the earth near them in order to mark the spot so that caution would be exercised in the vicinity. The worker was ordered to proceed with cleaning the wall until we were ready to ex- plore the find further. It was not until 2 days later, after the entire western wall had been cleaned for sectioning, that the fragmented skull of the second adult individual was exposed and recognized. The base of the skull lay at a depth of 7.4 m. from “0” datum, about 7 m. to the west and slightly to the south of Shanidar I. Judging from the evidence, this individ- ual also had been killed in situ. He appeared to have been caught and crushed under a rockfall, which compressed his skull laterally and contorted his neck. There was a soft earth fill of 12 cm. between the top of the skull and the rockfall. The skull faced to the east, with the top of the head toward the south, and the lower jaw to the north. The skull was crushed over a limestone cobble measuring 8 by 12 cm. The lower jaw was broken, mouth agape, over the stone. The front of the skull was compressed to a thickness of between 5 and 6 cm. A lime- stone cobble about the size of two doubled fists was picked off the left temple, some fragments of bone adhering to it. The eye sockets, crushed out of shape by the stones, stared hollowly out from under a contorted heavy brow ridge. The latter was broken, the left side lapping over the right side. Owing to the force of the blow, the left parietal had overlapped the right parietal at about the midline of the skull. Behind the heavy torus was a slanting brow, which could be appreciated even in its shattered state. The nasal bones were broken, and the front part of the upper jaw wassmashed. There was a good right maxilla. Approximate measurements were taken with a wooden metric ruler. The distance from the center of the brow to the displaced chin meas- ured about 28cm. The skull was about 20cm. long. The width of the lower jaw in its crushed state was about 5cm. There was a definitely rearward slope to the chin region. The length of the lower jaw from the front to the ascending ramus was about 11cm. The width of the ramus was about 4.5 cm. The rear of the skull, lower than the front, rested on a bed of loose, soft, brown earth. Stones were visible behind the skull, extending into the wall. Ee Q f W D —14 , ae es < (Damascus) Verusalem ») SCALE: 1:15,000,000 a ¢ Pe 3000 N tad/a N.KoGuTowiez 1959. FiGurE 1.—Map of Sumerian cities in the third millennium B.C. and the surrounding territories. Names of later cities in parentheses. 536608 O - 60 - (Face p. 637) 638 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 The discovery of the Sumerians brought many surprises; their material and moral civilization appeared, in the light of the ex- humed documents, far higher than anything expected from a group of such antiquity. The few scholars who were able to recognize Sumerian achievement across the span of millennia, in spite of a script hard to decipher and a mysterious agglutinative language, expressed their admiration in no uncertain terms. Stephen Langdon, Ficure 3.—Seal of Ur-Engur, king of Ur city. The earthly ruler is depicted as presented by benevolent goddesses to the moon god. in the first volume of the Cambridge History, writes that human civilization begins with the Sumerians and that they were the most talented and humane of all known early peoples. And indeed, Sumerians were talented. Without doubt, we owe to them the in- vention of cuneiform signs from which developed the Phoenician alphabet and the principle of writing, the means by which man may speak to fellow men across the ages. We know, also, that the Sumerians were nonageressive. Though sometimes obliged to defend their homeland from barbarian onslaught, they were not hostile to others. Keen and warm-hearted observers of nature, they directed their energies in the service of human life against the destructive forces of nature. Their irrigation system, completed in the fourth millennium B.C., created unprecedented wealth and freed “the shaven-headed people” from want. Sir Leon- ard Woolley, discoverer of ancient Ur, in his book on the Sumerians (1928), voiced “the claim of Sumer”: if any people can be regarded as “first cause” of civilization, that people is the Sumerian. Excavation on Sumerian sites, Tello, Warka, Nippur, and especially Ur, dating back to the third millennium B.C., revealed the antiquity of some of our technological processes. Radiocarbon tests helped to establish the earliest dates of human history. It became obvious that many great inventions credited to later nations must be traced back to SUMERIAN TECHNOLOGY—BOBULA 639 Ficure 4.—A masterpiece of early engraving represents Ninurta-Gilgamesh, the mighty hunter, on a jasper seal cylinder. Sumer because the corresponding artifacts such as the wheel, or constructions like the arch, occur first in the Sumerian sites. The only legitimate claims for contemporary achievement by another peo- ple may be those of the Egyptologists, but even these claims are often questionable. It is of course possible, though not probable, that an earlier wheel than the Sumerian may be discovered in India or Iran, as Gordon Childe (1951) emphasizes. But until this actually hap- pens, we have to accept the “claim of Sumer” on this “most decisive factor of the industrial revolution” and many other achievements. The nontechnical “firsts” of the Sumerians recently received some publicity. Dr. S. N. Kramer (1956) selected from the clay tablets of Sumer a number of “firsts”: the first law code, the first love song, and the first grumble against the tax collector known in human history. There are also the first proverb, the first city map, the first medical prescription, and the first account of a schoolboy’s day, all shedding light on the way of life of the Sumerians. Here and there allusions have also been made to the inventions of the Sumerians in the field of technology, although these were never listed in spite of the fact that the excavations of recent years have brought new proof of the amazing technological knowledge and skill of these Ficure 5.—From seal which belonged to Gudea, patesi of Lagash; the shaven priest-prince receives for his people the most precious gift from the Lord of the ‘‘Water of Life.” 640 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 stocky Mesopotamians. The present study attempts to give a brief review of the high points in the long succession of basic innovations, inventions, and achievements of the Sumerians in various fields of technology, as far as these may be identified by archeology and by the existing documents. It is the aim to present the merits of the Sumerians, those builders of the first high culture in Eurasia, who have to be recognized sooner or later as the real source of Western civilization. CANALIZATION AND AGRICULTURE The first achievement of the Sumerian people was the canalization of the land between and around the two great rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris. This feat created the proverbial riches of Mesopota- Ficure 6.—Deities of agriculture, with plow and produce, engraved on cylinder seal. mia—the first man-made plenty and variety of food, thanks to easy transportation and exchange. Canalization provided good grazing grounds for cattle and sheep, as well as breeding waters for fish. Caught with metal harpoons and hooks and easily available to the whole people, fish remained for a long time the basic source of protein for the Sumerians. Vegetables and fruit, grown systematically, rounded out the healthful Sumerian diet. The digging of navigable canals, which bring irrigation water to desert sands and make agriculture possible, cannot be attributed to a few geniuses, but must have been supported by organized groups Figure 7.—Goldfish amulet of Queen Shubad. of people, coaxed into concerted effort by the first statesmen and economists, aided by the first engineers able to draft plans. It is estimated that the majestic network of Mesopotamian irrigation was ready by 4000 B.C., the inscriptions of later kings boasting about SUMERIAN TECHNOLOGY—BOBULA 641 additions and repairs which were obviously regarded as highly meritorious work. Irrigation made methodical agriculture possible and produced fodder for the flocks of a settled people. Sheep, cattle, and pigs were bred in abundance by skilled herdsmen. “The carefully irriga- ted fields did yield amazing crops of barley and spelt; onions and Ficure 8.—The legendary hero overcomes and tames wild animals. Seal. other vegetables grew along the canal banks and as early as 2800 B.C., the date gardens were very extensive—a number of varieties of dates was cultivated and the harvest afforded one of the staple foods of the people,” said Sir Leonard Woolley (1928). Date stones were ground for fodder or used as fuel in the smelting furnaces. Oil was pressed from sesame seed, and it seems that there were mills for grinding large amounts of grain, although we do not know how they worked. The vegetables mentioned in Sumerian tablets are squash, gourds, eggplant, beans, lentils, cucumbers, chick-peas, leeks, garlic, cress, mustard, lettuce, capers, and some roots, probably turnips, radishes, and beets. Many spices were used: aloe, fennel, anise, fennugreek, coriander, thyme, marjoram, mint, rosemary, turmeric, ginger, saffron. One unidentified spice plant was the s¢mbirda. All these were care- fully gathered and preserved—the old records tell us of an “overseer of the house of herbs,” also of a man who is by trade a maker of Ficure 9.—Archaic seal depicts plowing. ointments. Small gold models of pomegranates used as jewelry show that this fruit was known. Almonds, plums, cherries, pears, mul- berries, apples, figs, grapes, quince, citron, and pistachio are mentioned. 642 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 We have long, elaborate legal treatises on clay tablets, which regulate the mutual rights and duties of a landowner and of a gardener who undertakes to plant date palms on the land of the former. The tools of farming—the spade, the hoe, the plow, and irrigation machinery—are mentioned first in Sumerian texts. One tablet records 4,638 worn copper sickles and 60 old hoes sent from the hardware house to the smithy to be sharpened. The world’s first farm bulletin, written in Sumerian, was found in 1950 among the ruins of the city of Nippur. This bulletin in- structs the farmer about the differ- ent kinds of furrows, tells him to “keep an eye on the man who puts in the seed, have him put the seeds in two fingers deep uniformly” with the seeder, a plow which car- ried the seeds and planted them through a funnel-like attachment. ; ; The tablet discusses the additional Se ae Pence oi@na eres value of three irrigations against the necessary two, and advises the farmer to say a prayer, too, lest mice and vermin destroy the crops. For a long time the rational advice was followed, the prayers were said, and the land of Meso- potamia was the most blessed spot on earth. ARCHITECTURE The marshlands of Mesopotamia offered only the poorest raw materials to the building trade of the first groups of human beings who settled there, certainly longer than 5,000 years ago. From mud and reeds the Sumerian builders created monumental architecture that must have been not only strikingly beautiful, but sophisticated as well—suited to a people who shaved, bathed, and used silver manicure sets long before Abraham’s days. The clay of the marshes can be fired into bricks, and brick was used by the Sumerians when large buildings were to be erected. Stone, which had to be imported, was used only for special purposes such as door sockets. The vast ruins of the Mesopotamian mounds contain mostly bricks. Square bricks, more seldom oblong bricks, formed foundations, walls, even the pavement of the streets. In later buildings, the planoconvex brick appears, flat on one side, convex on the other. In the early strata, large bricks of real cement were excavated. But the art of mixing cement seems to have gone out with the kings of Ur. Cement for plastering is used in the Royal Tombs of Ur, but after that the art was forgotten. It is certain that the ancient Sumerians also utilized the giant reeds for building. The reed decays in a few decades, but Sumerian SUMERIAN TECHNOLOGY—BOBULA 643 gem seals have preserved pictures of the reed houses. It is prob- able that the airy, cool reed house was the usual habitat of the poor people, and perhaps some of the wise, simple priest-princes, the Magi, also preferred it on hot Mesopotamian nights. In the marshes of the lower Tigris and the Euphrates, Marsh-Arabs are still building beautiful large halls as well as small huts from giant reeds, artfully bound and fashioned into columns and arches. Small streamers sometimes hang on top of the reed columns of such build- IY TAS tel Ficure 11.—Archaic seal with drinking ritual, before a door, possibly a marriage ceremony. Eagle and stags in the lower register. ings, and one cannot ignore the fact that the symbol of Innin-Ishtar, the great goddess, was a doorpost or column with a streamer. A doorpost with a streamer, a piece of woven material, may have been the age-old symbol of a home, a habitation in which there is a woman who weaves, and a hearth, under a roof held up by a column, sym- bolizing the protection of Ishtar-Hestia- Vesta. Private dwellings, originally built of bricks and wood, were found and reconstructed on the streets of the ancient cities. Such houses seem to have been mostly built around an open court, giving to families and individuals the privacy which was neglected in later millennia. Modern architecture is making an effort today to recapture this lost value. Judging from the remnants of these houses, their walls were thick, the rooms not too large, but lofty; there were brick stairs, domestic chapels, kitchens, and lavatories with efficient drains of terracotta pipes. The builders seem to have respected the contemporary omen, probably inspired by a regard for privacy, inscribed on a tablet: “Rooms opening out of each other are unlucky but those opening on the court bring good luck.” According to the excavator, “The houses bespoke comfort and even luxury.” Considerable knowledge of architecture must have been evolved in Ur, even for the building of galleries and two-story houses, but of course more of it is evident in the planning and execution of the public buildings. 644 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 We know that Sumerian architects drew plans of the contemplated buildings and built accordingly. This is attested by a statue of Gudea in the Louvre, showing the priest-prince of Lagash holding in his lap the plan of the temple he built. Earlier, far more primitive glyptic representations show rulers carrying on their heads the basket of the masons, all evidence pointing to the fact that, while the later Assyrian rulers paraded usually in the role of formidable warriors, the Sumerian rulers wanted to convey to posterity the idea: “We were builders.” And so they were. Among others, the early dynastic Temple Oval, excavated by P. Delougaz, was built according to a remarkable plan. Sumerians placed all their buildings, temples, palaces, office build- ings, treasuries, and libraries, on artificial platforms built of brick and bitumen, several yards high. The platform was constructed over soil hardened by filling and stamping and called temen—the word from which the Greek temenos and our temple originate. The reason for the platform is obvious—in the flat riverland protection from floods was necessary, In the great public buildings of the Sumerians, the excavators have found all basic elements of classic architecture—the colonnade, the arch, and the vault. In the ruins of many public buildings have Figure 12.—The ziggurat (temple hill) of Ur, reconstructed. been found carefully waterproofed boxes with foundation deposits, statuettes, and tablets—messages to posterity. Five such deposits were buried under the Inanna temple of Nippur, excavated in 1956. After Woolley’s discoveries at Ur, the invention of the arch could no longer be attributed to the Etruscans or Assyrians. While there are in Egypt some ancient arches of an age comparable with those of Sumer, there the arch had neither the importance nor the frequency of application which this architectural element had in Mesopotamia, where the available building units, the bricks, were small and neces- sity would have prompted the invention. R. A. Jones (1941) suggests that Sumerians may have chanced upon the invention of the arch by the burning of the arched reed top SUMERIAN TECHNOLOGY—BOBULA 645 of one of their reed buildings, when the mortar which covered the reeds was burned into a monolithic arch. If we may accept this explanation, we may also speculate as to whether the first “Gothic” cathedral was a mortar-covered reed building with the reeds burned out. The present-day reed buildings of southern Mesopotamia can- not fail to evoke in the spectator the feeling of affinity with the best Gothic style. The round “Roman” arch has certainly stood in its classic beauty and perfection over doors overlooking the lowlands of Mesopotamia for many millennia from the ruins of Ur, antedating the founding of Rome by a long stretch of time. The influence of Sumerian art on that of Rome is demonstrated in the book of Jurgis Baltrusaitis, “Art Sumérien—Art Roman” (1934). Woolley (1935) discovered that, in their transition from the square plan to the round plan of the half Cates dome, the Sumerian builders used a NT pastiecel? rough spherical triangle in the cor- ners of the room as support for the dome. He gives credit to the Sumerian architects for the invention of the Ficure 13.—Imprint of marble cyl- pendentive, which is generally believed inder worked with revolving burr. : Animals and architectural detail, to have been developed in the Byzan- tine Age. It would be a great injustice to Sumerian builders not to recognize that they strove for beauty. We must remember that the more deli- cate touches of decorative art which we miss today on the remnants of the nude brick walls of the Sumerian buildings may have been there in perishable material—wood and textiles. Heuzey (1888) suggests this possibility and mentions the cedarwood and the rugs. Sumerians seem to have enjoyed the subtle play of harmony and contrast of materials and colors. They were the first to use the mosaic technique. But their essential achievement remains the master- ful use of rhythm in the proportioning of their buildings. CERAMICS AND GLASS The fine clay carried to South Mesopotamia by the two great rivers was not only the basic material of architecture—foundations and walls, floors and drain pipes—but in a country completely void of stones, clay hardened by fire had to be used for making primitive tools, and in the deepest layers in which artifacts are found in Mesopotamia, clay objects are already abundant. Characteristic tools of the earliest agricultures are clay sickles, some of them with inlaid flint teeth. Along with these come the earliest clay statuettes of the first divinities. Naturally the largest number of clay sherds came from broken 646 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 vessels. The vessels found in the deepest layer were hand turned and delicately painted. The artifacts of this oldest culture, called Al-Ubaid, are covered by the 8-foot-thick clay layer of the flood, and above it come remnants of vessels, unpainted, but robust products of the real potter’s wheel. At some time in the age called that of the Uruk culture, the potter’s wheel was invented, obviously to provide for the needs of a rapidly increasing population. Fragments of the actual potter’s wheel were excavated at Ur. Clay provided the Sumer- ians with jugs with which to feed their babies and water their plants. It was also made into dishes for banqueting; bowls, cups, chalices, squat jars, highnecked jars, large jars for hold- ing and for storing water, oil, and grain. Cof- fins, too, were sometimes made of pottery. It seems that in certain cases the clay statues of the gods were toasted with clay cups, the latter \\ being afterward smashed—this is the explana- tion given for tons of broken pottery in the temple of Abu at Tell Asmar. No wonder Ficure 14.—Figure of that the Sumerian language abounds in expres- winged goddess from : ; clay plaque. Nippur. sions for different types of vessels. The wooden frame which made the mass production of uniform brick possible, and also the firing of bricks, were inventions of major importance. Sumerians had a special god in charge of brick- making; his name was Kabta. Clay was used for making many toys, and clay dice were found, dated to the First Dynasty of Ur, which are exactly like modern dice. Clay was the Ficure15.—Fragment of carved stone vase cheapest material with which to from Lagash, with a succession of spouting fashion traylike gaming boards, ae probably for the same games that the princes played on boards covered with engraved shells and precious stones. The world’s first city map is preserved on a clay tablet; a carefully drawn and perfectly recognizable map of the ancient Sumerian city of Nippur. However, the most important use of clay in Mesopotamia, from the point of view of the historian, is the clay tablet for writing. Tens of thousands of such tablets have been unearthed in Mesopo- tamia, covered with cuneiform writing. These texts, incised with a PEATE 1 Smithsonian Report, 1959—Bobula CL Id “Ther “ayo Joiyy) “Aep pay oy uO asole , ‘atl JO JOIVAA,, 942 YIM popyursds “qnq ‘pal[hry sem “Jay 0} pepusdseap ‘puasea] 07 SUIPIOO¥ ‘oyM ‘dsA0] JO ssappos ‘evuUReUT JO 4[Nd 9Y2 O21 pojed -Ipop ‘suvlIowng vy} FO AWD [eUIoIW,, “YNIQ Jo suns 241 Wo “Og QO8Z “eo palep ‘poy s[qieul sIRyDIV = c (‘uojsOg “SqUIV oul y JO WNssny]Ay As9},1N07)) a OOOT “82 *punol 94} Ul poyIOM SBM “aq 1101p *9u01S pley 10 "ysesey] wooly ‘on es $ Jo[ndt ue Town S JO peo ‘T PLATE 2 Smithsonian Report, 1959—Bobula (YIOX MON “AV Jo wuInossnyAy urqodonayy Aso nod) Orel OSIZ m2?) “Iojseqey]e UMOIG UL PdAIVS “ysese'] jo Jo[n “‘nsJISUIN-1)) jo peep c (erydjepeliydg ‘tunosnyAy AVISIOATUL) Asaiinoy) “O'_ O00Z "eo “IQ, Wo; ‘I[nze] side] Jo soA9 PIe[UL JIM peoy sPqIvuU UI A “| PLATE 3 Smithsonian Report, 1959—Bobula ‘u oy} UdAY OC J BOM I euoljeu Io} 33 I ) "IPM JO SOUIDS MOUS UOIZEPUNOJ UIUINIIG UO sAvyUI J I i : : =) 8 8 8-79) pure ‘srouostid AuvUI YOO} If) Jo AUIe 9 ‘sJau[ay I19y} puv s}voo UTysS- the TEE O%e¢04 piedoo] AAvoY auc )YSPURS pure Y bee3% 00 a : Yi pue J10} s AUIOU “nze side] ‘[[eys " @0 @090440> we oR oS Te, ni ine 2 + role. does ¢ ne ae ¢ Ne wees = 2 94} BYOIQ SOLIeYS 9f}7eq SUT, “Zpe ,,.P9y100},, 943 J1oy} pouuop saarigq at *J9]81801 do} ay} saieyjal ,.‘JY3Y 0} Jno JUIM PyIYD Meee I LSM IE : | Jot, F4SG PIEY ‘)'F OOIZ “eo SomseuAp Ayia “If WoIZ plepuRIg dIesOoy] a dd EE et ES CS Raa CRI ras E ind A out A alts PEATE 4 een ena ._ = 2 ‘ ¢ ?. i » » ig e oe *¥V¥ Pe % Se eee ae Smithsonian Report, 1959—Bobula pue ysy oy mM Cumeosnyy ysiqiigq) “IOSUIS pure ysidivy Aq pepraoid oisnu pure Sx UlIp Aolua siojonburg ~ *sjUudUIIvS ppvs posuliy 94 IeoM Aoyy -SJUBAIOS oy fo 3uo yd90x9 ‘ud ABYS o1e Us OU [| ‘govod snoroqora fo sAol oy} SsulMoys Pon Porethsered 4 Si ie nr, oOo sucess ee o°%te Feaeee vegas tseees Ov eees rosea eee = TN Tag | ri Hagen ee ee — ee ne wr wwewe eter qwvvwr Tu vevcecevrverr pep sere ov eye Pr FeO ge. 4 & S24 5 gh eS esos ~ 22 2% 244. 64624 2c4+b BOha sb MPLA D ROBY ABAD» es oe SE > Ayjnyueyd ul Ys No1G o1e Jeoul IOf S[PUIUe “IQ jo pie purys 94} JO IIIAQG() ao Eliade cies oi Oesey veoetese hee cag Tit asad ee a PEATE S Smithsonian Report, 1959—Bobula (-¢ ‘Jd ‘soz “nay Joyy) ‘eano7T oy} uy ‘sieayd pue ssounoy jo uMmos pazeonstydos yoA ojduis sulivam ‘Jassaa SuIpjoy ‘Ape[ poauoiyjus jo ojjan}¥Is 9U0Ig °7 « ‘ AdZNo}y_ ~pue OITATLOr I MOU C+ Id 99ZI¥G IDV) ,euyoIy oyi vapny,, pares ay} ul “yseseT] wot onqeys IUO} TS 9}IOIp ang al Smithsonian Report, 1959—Bobula PLATE 6 1. Stone monument of King Ur-Nammu, founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur, ca. 2060 B.C. Libation propitiating deities of the date palm, the “‘tree of life.” In the lower register the king carries the tools of the temple builder; his code is the first known code of law. 2. Fragment of limestone relief from Ur; the oldest representation in art of a wheeled chariot, dated ca. 2500 B.C. The chariot is covered with the symbolic, spotted leopard skin. (Both objects in University Museum, Philadelphia.) SUMERIAN TECHNOLOGY—BOBULA 647 reed stylus and then fired, varying from important historical texts or poems to all kinds of everyday accounts, give us more insight into the everyday life of Sumer than that which we get from Greek or Latin documents on peoples who lived much later. For many centuries, the Phoenicians were credited with the invention of glassmaking; a story was current about their fortunate chanc- ing upon this important invention. The mod- ern excavations exploded the fable and made Fieure iad dicefrom it, clear that both the Egyptians and the Meso- potamians made glass long before the advent of the otherwise highly gifted Phoenicians. In early Mesopotamia glass occurs mostly as material for beads of glass paste, but in Nippur a small glass bottle also was found. bi our “=-- SEH LO! ONG Ficure 17.—Clay tablet with cuneiform script. (de Genouillac, pl.[15.) BITUMEN TECHNOLOGY—MOSAIC WORK Bitumen is a mineral pitch, a naturally occurring solid or semi- solid substance, related in chemical composition to crude petroleum. Bitumen and petroleum usually occur in the same vicinity. Natural bitumen seeps out of the earth in many places in Iraq, and it is near those ancient fountains that man first learned to use this versatile material. 536608—60——_46 648 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 In the life of these early people, bitumen proved to be a most useful substance. It is pliable, resilient, and hardens in time; it is an adhesive; it can also be used for insulating and waterproofing. The earliest food stores, the underground silos of Hassuna village, south of Nineveh, were coated with bitumen. The early agriculturists of Hassuna and those of Jarmo, a settlement of even greater antiquity, used bitumen for toolmaking. Bitumen was the adhesive that held flints in the wooden hafts of tools, especially sickles used to harvest wheat and barley some 7,000 years ago. At the hands of the Sumerians the humble mineral pitch became a material of prime importance. It was the material that bonded the particles of artificial mountains, the ziggurats like that of Ur; it held the burnt bricks together; it insulated the buildings, covered the pavements, and lined the boats made of reeds. Later, at the time of the Neo-Babylonian rule, Nebuchadnezzar recorded in his inscrip- tions that he fortified the walls with bitumen and covered with glisten- ing asphalt the roads of Babylon. Bitumen made possible the evolution of mosaic pictures. One of the most important achievements of early Sumerian art is the Standard of Ur, which comes to us from ca. 2600 B.C. One side shows an army going to war in leopard-skin coats, wearing helmets and carrying adzes, driving 4-wheeled battle chariots, which trample the enemy underfoot. The other side shows a peaceful feast—the par- ticipants wear only the fringed loincloth, the gada. They eat, drink, and listen to the singer and the harpist. This work of art, salvaged and preserved with infinite care by the hands of British scholars, is now the pride of the British Museum. A fine reproduction is in the collection of Mesopotamian pictures by Christian Zervos (1935). The oldest specimen of inlaid pictures comes from Al-Ubaid; it is the famous frieze of white cows, calves, and stocky Sumerians processing milk around the sacred stall gate of the goddess Inanna, contrasting strikingly with a black shale background. This frieze is dated to ca. 2800 B.C. STONE CUTTING As all stone objects found in southern Mesopotamia are made from imported material, it is little wonder that much care was taken in carving and embellishing these precious objects. Stone door sockets of temples were usually marked with cuneiform signs; millstones were important economic assets. One of the Sumerian weapons, perhaps the oldest one, used by kings and often dedicated to gods, was the stone mace. Sacred traditions seemed to demand stone vessels with which to honor gods and royalty. Marble, alabaster, and carnel- ian were carved into vessels of exquisitely harmonious, simple shapes. SUMERIAN TECHNOLOGY—BOBULA Ficure 18.—Bull frieze, early inlay work. Al Ubaid. 649 650 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 Lapis lazuli, the dark blue semiprecious stone, was one of the most popular materials for inlaid jewelry, beads, and cylinder seals, though this stone, like diorite and obsidian, had to be imported from distant lands. Ficure 19.—Fragment of stone stela; the thunderbolt god Ningirsu with eagle and stone mace. The cylinder seal, a large cylinder-shaped carved bead which the owner wore also as a proud ornament, was one of the original Sumerian inventions. Every seal was engraved differently; there are no two seals with identical designs. The design of the seal symbolized the owner and marked his property. A jar of oil or wine or a barrel of Figure 20.—Royal cylinder seal. corn could be closed with a stamp of wet clay; the seal was then rolled over it and this print identified ownership. Documents written by scribes on wet clay were affirmed by the seals of the contracting parties. Naturally, the design had to be sophisticated enough to be unique. Seals and impressions are so abundant in Mesopotamian sites that Legrain (1951) calls their collection “one of our most constant and SUMERIAN TECHNOLOGY—BOBULA 651 reliable indices of the changing aspects of art and culture during almost three thousand years.” It is characteristic of the inner struc- ture of Sumerian society that even the slaves, male or female, had their seals, Le., they had lost their freedom, but not their identity. The idea of printing with cylinder seals is essentially identical with the principle of the giant cylinders of our printing presses: both perform the me- aD, PIL oy’ ==] = § ee —— ————— ——— : A eS ik CYC \ chanical reproduction of a pattern. The ar IGT history of printing begins with the cylin- Ficure 21.—Ram carved of lapis; der seal. amulet of Prince Mes-Kalam Dug. 3 The art of the gem cutters of ancient Ur produced artifacts of surprising and, in this field, unsurpassed beauty. The sculptors of statues were more handicapped by their material; nevertheless, they met the challenge. It is from small blocks of the imported stone that Sumerian artists carved their statues, impressive portraits of men and women of long ago. Quite often a large head sits on a Lilliputian body; there was not enough stone to carve whole life-size statues, and the head was favored. But some of these statues from the third millennium are Ficure 22.—Fragment of soapstone vase, from Nippur. (National Museum, Istanbul.) quite realistic and in matter of beauty are above archaic Greek art. To mention three examples: the alabaster head in the University of Pennsylvania Museum, the Boston head, and the hauntingly beautiful “Lady of Warka.” The French orientalist Leon Heuzey (1902) compared the art of the Sumerian sculptors with that of their Assyr- ian followers, who worked many centuries later. He found that the Sumerians surpassed in this respect the later empire builders. Sumerian sculpture is characterized by two marks of mastery: work- ing im hard stone and working in the round. Heuzey’s judgment is 652 SUMERIAN TECHNOLOGY—BOBULA supported by that of James Henry Breasted (1916), late director of the Oriental Institute of the Univer- sity of Chicago, who wrote, “The early Sumerian lapidaries soon became the finest craftsmen of the kind in the ancient Oriental world and their influ- ence has not yet disappeared from our own decorative art.” Seton Lloyd, a contemporary authority on art and archeology writes also (1955) that the Sumerian statues are masterpieces which rival the work of almost any period in the history of art. : : The engravers and stone cutters also Figure 23.—Engraved shell plaque used shell. Arachne, daughter of Idmon of Colo- from the queen’s eecdtireaddreseh phon in Lydia, was, according to the myth, so skilled in weaving that she dared to challenge the goddess Athena to a contest. Arachne won, but frustrated, angry Athena changed her into a spider. 536608—60——47 664 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 The most primitive textiles, the ancient reed mats and baskets, also survived, made by the inhabitants of Mesopotamia in unchanging pat- terns as long as there were Sumerians and even long after they departed. Reed mats were used for wrapping the bodies of the poor for simple burials. Woolley (1950) writes: It is an astonishing thing that in soil wherein so much that seems enduring decays entirely, a fragile thing like a piece of matting, though it lose all its substance and can be blown away with a breath, yet retains its appearance and its texture and can with care be exposed in such condition that a photo- graph of it looks like one of the real matting which perished 4,500 years ago. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Music, like dancing, had ritual aspects in the early days of Sumer. The harp...and the clang of cymbals accompanied the chanting of prayers in Sumerian temples. The small harp was sufficient for the private chapel of the queen. The magnificent harps of gold and silver discovered of late in the royal tombs must have been used in official ceremonies. ... The cymbals of Shubad’s time [ca. 2500 B.C.] were flat metal pieces, straight or horn-shaped, which the dancers struck in cadence. They are seen in the hands of the kid dancing behind the scorpion man; in the hands of a cymbal player, on a gold cylinder seal of the high priestess buried in the domed vault dis- covered last winter; in the hands of a woman musician of the Kish inlaid plaques. Curiously enough, the museum has two such plates of copper brought from Fara 30 years ago... most likely Sumerian cymbals of Queen Shubad’s age. They are curved, 35 centimeters long and 4 in width at the larger end. (Legrain, 1929b.) The large drum, which is often depicted by Sumerian lapidaries, also must have been an instrument of ritual music; later texts speak of driving away the evil spirits with the sound of the drum. Ficure 40.—Masquerade; animals as musicians. Inlay picture on a large harp from Ur. SUMERIAN TECHNOLOGY—BOBULA 665 Kiengira, the “Holy Land of Reeds,” was the original name of Sumer. A reedland would be the natural home of the reed pipe. We do not know of any reed pipes which could have survived the ordeal of entombment for thousands of years, but the University of Penn- sylvania possesses a fine pair of silver pipes, called sometimes “a double oboe” (pl. 11, fig. 3). The same museum is the proud owner of two wonderful Sumerian harps, lyres, and crosses of these two types. Woolley (1950), who found many of them at Ur, describes them thus: One of these harps was the most magnificent that we have yet found; its sounding box was bordered with a broad edging of mosaic in red and white and blue, the two uprights were encrusted with shell and lapis lazuli and red stone arranged in zones separated by wide gold bands, the cross-bar was half of plain wood, half plated with silver, shell plaques engraved with animal scenes adorned the front and above these projected a splendid head of a bearded bull wrought in heavy gold. [PI. 10, fig. 1.] A second lyre in the same place was all of silver, with a cow’s head, a third with a stag, and a fourth with two stags. Woolley wonders, Ficure 41.—Scorpion-man and kid dancing. were the instruments of “different sorts, the bull denoting the bass, the cow the tenor and the stag perhaps the alto? Then the finding of four lyres together in one grave might imply a system of harmony, which, at this early date, would be of a very great interest for the history of music.” Musical instruments are depicted on Sumerian steles and other stone fragments, shown in table 426 of Christian’s (1940) Altertumskunde. There were bells, rattles, sistrums, and a great variety of primitive and sophisticated instruments. 666 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 The Oxford History of Music (Buck, 1929) begins with a chapter on Greek music, followed by a second chapter, “Music of the Hebrews.” In these and the following chapters, it is acknowledged that all Greek music had its origins in Asia Minor and that the characteristic and celebrated musical instruments of the Greeks and Hebrews are known from ages long preceding the times of those peoples. But these facts are told only in the footnotes. There we read about the Sumerian kithara represented on a bas relief from Tello, which is now in the Salle Sarzec of the Louvre; “as pictured, this kithara evinces a high standard of craftmanship and theoretical knowledge.” The same source, speaking of the remote origin of the lute, mentions the smallest member of the family, the tamboura, which figures on a bas relief coeval with the above- mentioned, coming also from the palace of Gudea, Sumerian ruler of ancient Lagash. We may add that Donald E. McCown exca- vated at Nippur in 1952 a clay plaque with the figure of a man holding a lute. The number and diversity of surviving musical instruments and the cuneiform documents men- tioning different types of songs are witnesses to a fairly high mu- sical culture in Sumerian cities be- june 42-—Mountain goats; engraved tween the third and the second shell plaque. millenniums B.C. One wonders if scholarship will ever proceed to the point of reconstructing and reviving the music of the Sumerians? A courageous effort was made by F. W. Galpin (1937). CONCLUSION From architecture to music, all arts and crafts of today owe a cer- tain debt to the ancient masters of Sumer. The present brief sketch of Sumerian achievements in the field of technology is far from ex- hausting the field, nor was this even attempted. Yet we cannot con- clude this review without mentioning two important branches of human activity, from which the technical know-how is inseparable: the sciences and the art of healing. Tt has been stated and far too often repeated, more or less explicitly, that the human communities preceding the classic period of antiquity lived in the darkness of despicable black magic and superstition. This is not a fair picture; there has certainly been an evolution in SUMERIAN TECHNOLOGY—BOBULA 667 human knowledge, but it has been a slow transition and there is no sharp dividing line between earlier western Asian and later east European wisdoms. A closer look at the world of these very ancient Magi discloses that their “magic” was founded on the carefully collected and transmitted sum of observations made by the type of men whom today we would call scholars. Many generations of Magi observed the facts of weather, the march of the stars, the changes of the seasons, the phenomena connected with plants, animals, and human beings, and they combined these observations. The Magus was the man who had observed the fact, or received in secret teaching the important information, that when the sun’s disk ascends between the horns of the constellation Capricorn it means the end of winter. The force of the sun returns, the days are lengthen- ing, and he may preach to a depressed people the good news of the coming of the spring, the end of winter’s misery. Men and women able to predict the changes of weather, ever so important to primitive peoples, were the first scientists; their knowl- edge gave them power and raised them to the status of priest-princes. The source of this power remained for a long time the continued careful and ritual observations of the heavenly bodies and other natural phenomena that constitute astrology, the parent of modern astronomy. Sumerian healing art was far from being silly superstition. Before suggesting therapy, the Sumerian physicians had to recite conscien- tiously the diagnosis. Their prescriptions, concocted from plants, animals, and minerals, given with beer as a chaser, sound quite rational as witnessed by a tablet in the University of Pennsylvania Museum which has been called the oldest page in medical history. This Sumer- Ficure 43.—The seal of a physician, on gray limestone cylinder. 668 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 ian clay document from Nippur is completely free from the mystical and irrational elements which characterize later Babylonian medicine. Sumerian medics had their medicines, but obviously they found it useful to add psychotherapeutic treatment. One is surprised to read recent, lengthy books on the history of human civilization and the great inventions of mankind in which the authors ignore or persistently belittle the basic contributions of western Asia and especially those of the Sumerians. It is quite arbi- trary to state that the Sumerians lived before philosophy began, or that their knowledge was not real “science.” ‘The early speculations of the Sumerians, embodied in their myths, on the essence, cause, and nature of things, are the foundation and beginning of philosophy. It is natural that, like all beginnings, these ideas are primitive. But it should be gratefully recognized that the Sumerians not only invented and developed the whole series of metal tools which artist and craftsman use even today for creative work—the adzes, chisels, saws, awls, drills, and many others—but they also created the basic abstract tools and categories of scientific work for today’s Western scholar. Early Sumerian tablets contain enumerations of fishes, birds, domestic animals, and plants which the ancient writers observed and grouped. The categories they created laid the groundwork for such branches of science as zoology and botany. The basic operations in mathematics, including algebra, and our system of metrology are a legacy from the Sumerians. They taught us to measure length by foot, weight by pound, land by acre. They evolved the sexagesimal system, they divided the circle into 3860 degrees, the day into hours, and the hour into 60 minutes. The tablets show that they knew and used the theorems later attributed to Euclid and Pythagoras long before the birth of these great Greeks. For a wealth of fascinating details the reader is referred to the bibliography following this article, which for technical reasons cannot be complete, but many of the books mentioned will give further references to other books and periodicals in the field. Ficure 44.—Procession of women. Seal cylinder. SUMERIAN TECHNOLOGY—BOBULA 669 Sumerian nature and thought do not appeal equally to all modern students, and many of the primitive speculations about presages and other irrational elements are obviously unacceptable. But mixed with these are elements of timeless value, and these should be recog- nized. Sumerian thought paved modern man’s way in getting acquainted with his still puzzling universe. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Permission to reproduce figures 2-6, 8-11, 18, 15, 19, 20, 24, 25, 29, 30, 838-36, 43, and 44, from William Hayes Ward’s “The Seal Cylinders of Western Asia,” was kindly granted by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. By courtesy of the University Museum of the University of Pennsyl- vania are included figures 7, 21-23, 26-28, 32, 37-39, and 42, drawings originally made by Miss M. Louise Baker for the Museum Journal. For figures 12, 14, 16, 18, 40, and 41, and last, but not least, for the map, figure 1, lam indebted to Dr. Manuela Kogutovicz. I wish to express my heartfelt thanks to all who have helped me in the preparation of this article. Acknowledgments for the photographs on the plates are under the pictures. BIBLIOGRAPHY AL-ASIL, NaAJI. 1949. Dudu, the Sumerian scribe. Sumer, vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 130-132. AMIET, PIERRE. 1951. La Ziggurat d’aprés les cylindres de l’époque archaique. Rev. As- syriol., vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 80-88. ANDRAE, WALTER. 1922. Die archaischen Ischtartempel in Assur. Leipzig. 1930. Das Gotteshaus and die Urformen des Baues im alten Orient. BALTRUSAITIS, JURGIS. 1934. Art sumérien, art roman. Paris. Barser, C. T. 1956. Bitumen—7,000 years of man’s history. Iraq Petroleum. vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 17-21. BASMACHI, FARAJ. 1950. Sculptured stone vases in the Iraq Museum. Sumer, vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 165-176. BERRIMAN, A. HE. 1955. A new approach to the study of ancient metrology. Rev. Assyriol., vol. 49, No. 4, pp. 193-201. Boutz, Cart HELMUT. 1941. In den Ruinen von Warka. Leipzig. Bow in, C. ANGELA, and FARWELL, BEATRICE. 1950. Small sculptures in bronze. New York. BRAIDWOop, R. J. 1952. The Near Hast and the foundations for civilization. Eugene, Oreg. 1958. Near Eastern prehistory. Science, vol. 127, No. 3312, pp. 1419-1420. 670 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 BREASTED, JAMES HENRY. 1916. Ancient times. Boston. BRILL-BEZOLD. 1918. Sternglaube und Sterndeutung, Die Geschichte und das Wesen der Astrologie. 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The Sumerians. Oxford. 1935. The development of Sumerian art. London. 1946. Ur: The first phases. London. 1950. Ur of the Chaldees. London. ZERVOS, CHRISTIAN. 1935. L’art de la Mésopotamie de la fin du 4e millénaire au XVe siécle avant notre ére. Elam, Sumer, Akkad. Paris. is nlf ae ¥ anit JP Te = 7 ie acid isis Ta gtee: f . NEpire Stepan ee a MY ees: hac ye OOn™ < a ‘ube Wat Tei ue phontas rT tite vate an!' Od 1 wen: Aerarn ane Vite 08 Nice pak onstage atte aerated St Rgitt atte WEA) Weeds? AdlolermeA .vatl axavotolqaws® a 30. yaibiled oe a (itt O Se Litt inal its ee) aes ee "th 7 nee ts Whi hart okt £1 ant Haat) olih a bvnau oye . Fibs aa) set hireade | apes oe [ eh Sanh Het el aus cee! otibatiats ‘er ereeL saat - ay K ' ra ee bel wlio his © Ha ee ewes Lelia’. $2) ies eA aa ae om : i" 43 WY (PRR UE Se ae” 2A itor a n wa RA qidaalt dott! yeetlA vat atin tarigiqnls dh bee . eid FF wach ae ij 4 “ ‘ 4 « 4 * - DEP Te lene” uA matey bh) erate (hoe a0) On j r Pk i 7 Bet b+ | i 4 ui? 4 ! t Gi & y al i hi Mago | ii iy v ' | hw ay uals a F ; } Ge ferst! p Perri 1 ; rt ; i ? a* Jen. tis i ij 1% i ih é 1 ¢ j r ° s i} vias. Ay =| ii i? ay f alt { ft eti i ' 6 ’ | ‘ ‘ % . i : is ¥ ! 3 i \y ' : c 7 - yb) ; che Brandywine: An Early Flour-Milling Center By Peter C. WELSH Associate Curator, Department of Civil History United States National Museum Smithsonian Institution [With 7 plates] “Rpw PEOPLE are at any considerable distance from gristmills,” wrote St. John de Crévecoeur of late 18th-century America. Fast- flowing streams, whirring waterwheels, and massive millstones, once a common sight, are now all but forgotten. Today an occasional grist- mill survives, giving mute testimony to Crévecoeur’s observations and to the unimposing beginnings of a still important industry whose foundations were laid in the Delaware Valley along such creeks as the Wissahickon, Neshaminy, Pennypack, Crosswicks, Rancocas, Pen- sauken, Chester, and Brandywine. In fact after 1700, on most streams mills of every size and shape, supplied with an abundance of wheat from the rich farmlands of the Middle Atlantic region, met domestic needs as well as the demands of hungry markets in Europe and the West Indies. Philadelphia, New York, and later Baltimore thrived as flour ports and trade-conscious merchants eagerly pur- chased the product of nearby mills, hoping either to ship the barreled staple worldwide in their quest for the riches and goods of foreign lands, or to speculate on the domestic grain market which, in the 1750’s, became lucrative for the first time (1). Some mills ground solely for local needs and were called custom mills; others, larger and better equipped, ground specifically for the export trade and were known as merchant mills. The former were usually isolated and on the lesser creeks; the latter were often found in clusters, situated on the larger streams, where waterpower was ample and where transportation—by road or water—linked the mill to the wheatfields and the market. Occasionally, a combination of geography, waterpower, grain supply, and entrepreneurial skill pro- duced milling centers of unusual capacity which for a time dominated the economic life of their locality. The Brandywine Mills, on the 1 Numbers in parentheses refer to notes at end of text. 677 678 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1959 tidewater of the Brandywine Creek near Wilmington, Del., were such a center (2). Here, in almost bucolic surroundings, successive generations of Quaker millers reaped handsome profits from the tons of flour that they shipped to the corners of the world. Here, too, the genius of Oliver Evans was put to work. By the 1780’s his inventions— elevators, conveyors, descenders, and the hopper-boy—were clanking away in the Brandywine Mills, helping to improve quality, increase yield, and reduce the physical burden of milling (3). Evans’s ma- chines, at first dubbed “rattletraps,” literally took the sack from the miller’s back and, in so doing, revolutionized the fiour-milling in- dustry. Finally, as Thomas Twining pointed out in 1796: “Here America already exhibited a spot which might be compared with any similar scene in England” (4). But what was so different about these mills, and why tell their story? ‘There is reason enough if one reflects on a long-forgotten but, to the historian, a challenging appraisal; namely, that a study of the Brandywine Mills “would afford a complete picture of the rise of the milling interest in the United States” (5). ah! 1" int my ) : i i av i* th o's Ab era wads ath catia ssiha Yi ' Pre emlrne ¥ \ worst beatiow Oyun vywbet ey a * Sorel vibe | tag: oh alee Mr, an ry) tas ae via a & fat hgh oi) aut i‘; KOE e ee iis baie ix +h ok ‘ owreubion ba E ngte ak ee la ry i aHOsrst art Im Upate weld we ke roast =o: 680d Suderaaia? 2 . as ve winkt-. st S ext is f Bu a i VF yim! (4 bl ttre oe ey pee Ha ory aed ' Alpe a not) iv {ie hives «7 vol atwad aalieigalh ett Te yeti ct ee Ga 86 iy ..o) eietll ney ata = } r } ~ he ria ae sue eI ets ff RCA Teo zs tee \} MZ. my | i ib Sete ATT» bat beeen Po 9 / ws ele Meg ht wlely 5 Dito | Py 4 ‘ tole . ov iy a reir A ‘at ey 74 erat ey. Es, aART ok, eh, tile : Pa ail Pelt i} : . \j i” Aisles ape sity ‘ whist i By | iy ,, 2. 180F ofan Fi CE ay own | ’ Tf 4h 5 q : al ave : Pie oliade Beloit tk ithe aw | ity 6) tacias ed 0) 3 J i a da 2H LOL 86 vit 2a eal ta he eu ae — 9 ¥ * ‘Sol ri ri of ; Pvast Ai} yea ‘ mr Lee thier ia ar a! ‘ Ph lity Ny Py Mehl) 6b > aio Lal ty Bret ibhridy ae yc sin 4 * y‘ - t * - © ‘ IV DIRINID Nie Toiio,. We, a! 1A ES Ts a CA ; if.» , “Y ; “ : my in ae mh fen ei Beck ieleces *) : Ae (itt A ~ tt Bonk eet, wuaalihy | Mos, hrnieaChe ly Sore oon | db tt ata pe: ee ; atl “ ' i nd} Th qanv _? aeenene : e pASt fi9Gis bxvo) a is pas , Ue Wt aw e pict: fied bs 8 ‘ jy Aen a gait Lady boy v Na A jeyaldogllti NY. Sh ~ na dt > a aT Licwoiouh, a Boh eilt we ; mt ‘ 4 1 a pi y ¢ ve ME 1 af % ¥ ? f ‘ " 1 ' : A i foi}. i bs ee, . i. eed i P j a5 7 “Oo i its eee ' iT] Wik il - ™ Lae anery ae." a —l Oe _ ll ii | | I 3 9088 Ut 7 ‘= = | |= = wo = =z < =z fe) 2) Bs = = ” I